This day in .....

13 September: 1899 - Henry Bliss is the first person in the United States to be killed in an automobile accident.

Henry Bliss (road accident victim)

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14 September: 1814 - Francis Scott Key writes "The Star-Spangled Banner."

The Star-Spangled Banner

National anthem of the United States

"Star-Spangled Banner" redirects here. For other uses, see Star-Spangled Banner (disambiguation).

"The Star-Spangled Banner" is the national anthem of the United States. The lyrics come from the "Defence of Fort M'Henry",^[2] a poem written by American lawyer Francis Scott Key on September 14, 1814, after he witnessed the bombardment of Fort McHenry by the British Royal Navy during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large U.S. flag, with 15 stars and 15 stripes, known as the Star-Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort after the battle.

The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a social club in London. Smiths' song, "To Anacreon in Heaven" (or "The Anacreontic Song"), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. This setting, renamed "The Star-Spangled Banner", soon became a popular patriotic song. With a range of 19 semitones, it is known for being very difficult to sing, in part because the melody sung today is the soprano part. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.

"The Star-Spangled Banner" was first recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889. On March 3, 1931, the U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution (46 Stat. 1508) making the song the official national anthem of the United States, which President Herbert Hoover signed into law. The resolution is now codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301(a). It has become controversial in the United States since the 1990's due to perceived racism in the anthem's lyrics and Key's involvement in slavery.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference adopted was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Defence of Fort M'Henry | Library of Congress". Loc.gov. Retrieved April 18, 2017.

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15 September: 1935 - Nazi Germany adopts a new national flag with the swastika.

Swastika

Transcultural religious symbol

For other uses, see Swastika (disambiguation).

The swastika (卐 or 卍) is an ancient religious and cultural symbol, predominantly found in various Eurasian cultures, as well as some African and American ones. In the western world it is more widely recognized as a symbol of the German Nazi Party who appropriated it from Asian cultures starting in the early 20th century. The appropriation continues with its use by neo-Nazis around the world.^[1][2][3][4] The swastika never stopped being used as a symbol of divinity and spirituality in Indian religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.^{[1][5][6][7][8]} It generally takes the form of a cross,^[A] the arms of which are of equal length and perpendicular to the adjacent arms, each bent midway at a right angle.^[10][11]

The word swastika comes from Sanskrit: स्वस्तिक, romanized: svastika, meaning 'conducive to well-being'.^[1][12] In Hinduism, the right-facing symbol (clockwise) (卐) is called swastika, symbolizing surya ('sun'), prosperity and good luck, while the left-facing symbol (counter-clockwise) (卍) is called sauvastika, symbolising night or tantric aspects of Kali.^[1] In Jain symbolism, it represents Suparshvanatha – the seventh of 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers and saviours), while in Buddhist symbolism it represents the auspicious footprints of the Buddha.^[1][13][14] In several major Indo-European religions, the swastika symbolises lightning bolts, representing the thunder god and the king of the gods, such as Indra in Vedic Hinduism, Zeus in the ancient Greek religion, Jupiter in the ancient Roman religion, and Thor in the ancient Germanic religion.^[15] The symbol is found in the archeological remains of the Indus Valley Civilisation^[16] and Samarra, as well as in early Byzantine and Christian artwork.^[17][18]

Although used for the first time as a symbol of international antisemitism by far-right Romanian politician A. C. Cuza prior to World War I,^[19][20][21] it was a symbol of auspiciousness and good luck for most of the Western world until the 1930s,^[2] when the German Nazi Party adopted the swastika as an emblem of the Aryan race. As a result of World War II and the Holocaust, in the West it continues to be strongly associated with Nazism, antisemitism,^[22][23] white supremacism,^[24][25] or simply evil.^[26][27] As a consequence, its use in some countries, including Germany, is prohibited by law.^[B] However, the swastika remains a symbol of good luck and prosperity in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain countries such as Nepal, India, Thailand, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, China and Japan, and by some peoples, such as the Navajo people of the Southwest United States. It is also commonly used in Hindu marriage ceremonies and Dipavali celebrations.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Swastika". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
2. ^ ^{a b} Campion, Mukti Jain (23 October 2014). "How the world loved the swastika – until Hitler stole it". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Roden was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Olson, Jim (September 2020). "The Swastika Symbol in Native American Art". Whispering Wind. 48 (3): 23–25. ISSN 0300-6565. ProQuest 2453170975 – via ProQuest.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sullivan2001p216 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference snodgrass82 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cort, John E. (2001). Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0195132342.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference p.97 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference GRE was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference MigSym was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference CambDict was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference etymology was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference silverblatt109 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ Pant, Mohan; Funo, Shūji (2007). Stupa and Swastika: Historical Urban Planning Principles in Nepal's Kathmandu Valley. National University of Singapore Press. p. 231 with note 5. ISBN 978-9971-69-372-5.
15. ^ Greg, Robert Philips (1884). On the Meaning and Origin of the Fylfot and Swastika. Nichols and Sons. pp. 6, 29.
16. ^ "Faience button seal". Faience button seal (H99-3814/8756-01) with swastika motif found on the floor of Room 202 (Trench 43).
17. ^ "Swastika". Britanica. The swastika also appeared in early Christian and Byzantine art (where it became known as the gammadion cross, or crux gammata, because it could be constructed from four Greek gammas [ Γ ] attached to a common base).
18. ^ "Textile with Interlacing Bands forming Swastika Figures (German, 14th–15th century)". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
19. ^ The National Jewish Monthly. Vol. 55–56. B'nai B'rith. 1940. p. 181. Archived from the original on 28 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
20. ^ Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas M. (1998). Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, Center for Romanian Studies, 1998, Nicolae Iorga: A Biography, p. 102. Center for Romanian Studies. ISBN 9789739809177. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
21. ^ Butnaru, Ion C.; Spodheim, Renee (1992). Ion C. Butnaru, Renee Spodheim, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992, The Silent Holocaust: Romania and Its Jews, p. 28. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 9780313279850. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference holocaust2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ Cite error: The named reference wiener463 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ Stollznow, Karen (2020). On the Offensive: Prejudice in Language Past and Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-108-49627-8.
25. ^ Langman, Lauren; Lundskow, George (2016). God, Guns, Gold and Glory: American Character and its Discontents. Brill. p. 89. ISBN 978-90-04-32863-1.
26. ^ Lander, Janis (2013). Spiritual Art and Art Education. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-134-66789-5.
27. ^ Wagoner, Brady (2009). Symbolic Transformation: The Mind in Movement Through Culture and Society. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-135-15090-7.

Cite error: There are <ref group=upper-alpha> tags or {{efn-ua}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=upper-alpha}} template or {{notelist-ua}} template (see the help page).

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16 September: 1987 - The Montreal Protocol is signed to protect the ozone layer from depletion.

Montreal Protocol

1987 treaty to protect the ozone layer

The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. Since then, it has undergone nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali)^[1][2][3] As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering.^[4] Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2040 (across much of the world) and 2066 (over Antarctica).^[5][6][7] Due to its widespread adoption and implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol".^[8][9] In comparison, effective burden-sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so.^[10] In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.^[11][12]

The ozone treaty has been ratified by 198 parties (197 states and the European Union),^[13] making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.^[14]

This truly universal treaty has also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 and 1987).

1. ^ Hub, IISD's SDG Knowledge. "Kigali Amendment Enters into Force, Bringing Promise of Reduced Global Warming | News | SDG Knowledge Hub | IISD". Retrieved 7 March 2019.
2. ^ McGrath, Matt (15 October 2016). "Deal reached on HFC greenhouse gases". BBC.
3. ^ "Adjustments to the Montreal Protocol". United Nations Environment Programme Ozone Secretariat. Archived from the original on 23 August 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
4. ^ Ewenfeldt B, "Ozonlagret mår bättre", Arbetarbladet 12-9-2014, p. 10.
5. ^ "Ozone Layer on Track to Recovery: Success Story Should Encourage Action on Climate". UNEP. UNEP. 10 September 2014. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
6. ^ Susan Solomon; Anne R. Douglass; Paul A. Newman (July 2014). "The Antarctic ozone hole: An update". Physics Today. 67 (7): 42–48. Bibcode:2014PhT....67g..42D. doi:10.1063/PT.3.2449. hdl:1721.1/99159.
7. ^ Canada, Environment and Climate Change (20 February 2015). "Ozone layer depletion: Montreal Protocol". aem. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
8. ^ "The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer". Theozonehole.com. 16 September 1987. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2007.
9. ^ "Background for International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer - 16 September". un.org. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
10. ^ Of Montreal and Kyoto: A Tale of Two Protocols Archived 26 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine by Cass R. Sunstein 38 ELR 10566 8/2008
11. ^ Environmental Politics Climate Change and Knowledge Politics Archived 26 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine Reiner Grundmann, Vol. 16, No. 3, 414–432, June 2007
12. ^ Technische Problemlösung, Verhandeln und umfassende Problemlösung, (eng. technical trouble shooting, negotiating and generic problem solving capability) Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Gesellschaftliche Komplexität und kollektive Handlungsfähigkeit (Societys complexity and collective ability to act), ed. Schimank, U. (2000). Frankfurt/Main: Campus, p.154-182 book summary at the Max Planck Gesellschaft Archived 12 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine
13. ^ "Status of Ratification – The Ozone Secretariat". Ozone.unep.org. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2008.
14. ^ "UNEP press release: "South Sudan Joins Montreal Protocol and Commits to Phasing Out Ozone-Damaging Substances"". Unep.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2012.

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17 September: 1787 - The United States Constitution is signed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

United States Constitution

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18 September: 1873 - The Panic of 1873 begins

Panic of 1873

Financial crisis leading to economic depression in Europe and North America

The Panic of 1873 was a financial crisis that triggered an economic depression in Europe and North America that lasted from 1873 to 1877 or 1879 in France and in Britain. In Britain, the Panic started two decades of stagnation known as the "Long Depression" that weakened the country's economic leadership.^[1] In the United States, the Panic was known as the "Great Depression" until the events of 1929 and the early 1930s set a new standard.^[2]

The Panic of 1873 and the subsequent depression had several underlying causes for which economic historians debate the relative importance. American inflation, rampant speculative investments (overwhelmingly in railroads), the demonetization of silver in Germany and the United States, ripples from economic dislocation in Europe resulting from the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), and major property losses in the Great Chicago Fire (1871) and the Great Boston Fire (1872) helped to place massive strain on bank reserves, which, in New York City, plummeted from $50 million to $17 million between September and October 1873.

The first symptoms of the crisis were financial failures in Vienna, the capital of Austria-Hungary, which spread to most of Europe and to North America by 1873.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Musson was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "What history teaches us about the welfare state". The Washington Post. 29 August 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2011.

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19 September: 1893 - Women's suffrage: In New Zealand, the Electoral Act of 1893 is consented to by the governor giving all women in New Zealand the right to vote.

Women%27s_suffrage

 

20 September: 451 - The Battle of Chalons, in North Eastern France. Flavius Aetius' victory over Attila the Hun in a day of combat, considered to be the largest battle in the ancient world.

Attila the Hun

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21 September: 1942 - The B-29 Superfortress makes its maiden flight

B-29 Superfortress

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22 September: 1888 - The first issue of National Geographic Magazine is published

National Geographic Magazine

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23 September: 1846 - Discovery of Neptune by French astronomer Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier and British astronomer John Couch Adams; verified by German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle.

Neptune (planet)

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24 September: 1947 - Majestic 12 is allegedly established by secret executive order of President Harry Truman

Majestic 12

This article is about the purported secret committee. For other uses, see Majestic 12 (disambiguation).

Purported organization that appears in UFO conspiracy theories

Majestic 12, also known as Majic-12, and MJ-12 for short, is a purported organization that appears in UFO conspiracy theories. The organization is claimed to be the code name of an alleged secret committee of scientists, military leaders, and government officials, formed in 1947 by an executive order by U.S. President Harry S. Truman to facilitate recovery and investigation of alien spacecraft. The concept originated in a series of supposedly leaked secret government documents first circulated by ufologists in 1984. Upon examination, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) declared the documents to be "completely bogus", and many ufologists consider them to be an elaborate hoax.^[1][2] Majestic 12 remains popular among some UFO conspiracy theorists and the concept has appeared in popular culture including television, film and literature.

1. ^ Donovan, Barna William (2011-07-20). Conspiracy Films: A Tour of Dark Places in the American Conscious. McFarland. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-0786486151. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference FBI_bogus was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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25 September: 1981 - Sandra Day O'Connor was the 102nd Justice sworn in as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, the first woman to hold the office.

Sandra_Day_O%27Connor

 

26 September: 1983 - Australia II, the first non-American winner, wins the Americas Cup.

Australia II

Australian racing yacht

For the warship referred to as HMAS Australia II, see HMAS Australia (D84).

Australia II (KA 6) is an Australian 12-metre-class America's Cup challenge racing yacht that was launched in 1982^[1] and won the 1983 America's Cup for the Royal Perth Yacht Club. Skippered by John Bertrand, she was the first successful Cup challenger, ending a 132-year tenure (with 26 successful defences) by the New York Yacht Club.

1. ^ J.T. "1983 – Australia II – KA 6". 33rd America's Cup. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2011.

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27 September: 1938 - Ocean liner Queen Elizabeth launched in Glasgow

RMS Queen Elizabeth

Ocean liner (1938–1968)

This article is about the Cunard Line oceanliner launched in 1939. For other ships, see Queen Elizabeth (ship).

RMS Queen Elizabeth was an ocean liner operated by Cunard Line. In tandem with Queen Mary both ships provided a weekly luxury liner service between Southampton in the United Kingdom and New York City in the United States, via Cherbourg in France.

Whilst being constructed in the mid-1930s by John Brown and Company at Clydebank, Scotland, the build was known as Hull 552.^[5] Hull 552 was launched on 27 September 1938 and named in honour of Queen Elizabeth, the wife of King George VI. With a design that improved upon that of Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth was slightly larger being 12 feet longer than her sister ship, She was the largest passenger liner ever built at that time and for 56 years thereafter. She entered service in March 1940 as a troopship in the Second World War, and it was not until October 1946 that she made her first commercial voyage in her intended role as an ocean liner.

With the decline in popularity of the transatlantic route, both ships were replaced by the smaller, more economical Queen Elizabeth 2, which made her maiden voyage in 1969. Queen Mary was retired from service on 9 December 1967, and sold to the city of Long Beach, California. Queen Elizabeth was retired after her final crossing to New York, on 8 December 1968.^[6] She was moved to Port Everglades, Florida, and converted to a tourist attraction, which opened in February 1969. The business was unsuccessful, and closed in August 1970. Finally, Queen Elizabeth was sold to Hong Kong businessman Tung Chao Yung, who intended to convert her into a floating university cruise ship called Seawise University. In 1972, whilst she was undergoing refurbishment in Hong Kong harbour, a fire broke out aboard under unexplained circumstances, and the ship was capsized by the water used to fight the fire. The following year the wreck was deemed an obstruction to shipping in the area, and in 1974 and 1975 was partially scrapped on site.^[7]

1. ^ Pride of the North Atlantic, A Maritime Trilogy, David F. Hutchings. Waterfront 2003
2. ^ John Shephard, The Cunard – White Star liner Queen Elizabeth
3. ^ RMS Queen Elizabeth – Maiden Voyage after War – Cunard – Original footage, British Movietone News via youtube
4. ^ "RMS Queen Elizabeth". www.relevantsearchscotland.co.uk. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
5. ^ "Big Liners Steel Frame Work Rises as Workers Speed Up" Popular Mechanics, left-side pg 346. Hearst Magazines. September 1937.
6. ^ "RMS Quen Elizabeth - 1939".
7. ^ "Classic Liners and Cruise Ships – Queen Elizabeth". Cruiseserver.net. Retrieved 17 May 2012.

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28 September: 1066 - William the Conqueror invades England: the Norman Conquest begins.

Norman Conquest

11th-century invasion and conquest of England by Normans

This article is about the Norman invasion of England in 1066. For other uses, see Norman conquest (disambiguation).

The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army made up of thousands of Norman, French, Flemish, and Breton troops, all led by the Duke of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.

William's claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged William's hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson. The Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September, but Godwinson's army defeated and killed Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Three days later on 28 September, William's invasion force of thousands of men and hundreds of ships landed at Pevensey in Sussex in southern England. Harold marched south to oppose him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north. Harold's army confronted William's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings. William's force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement, and William became king.

Although William's main rivals were gone, he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on the English throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated; some of the elite fled into exile. To control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strong points throughout the land. The Domesday Book, a manuscript record of the "Great Survey" of much of England and parts of Wales, was completed by 1086. Other effects of the conquest included the court and government, the introduction of a dialect of French as the language of the elites, and changes in the composition of the upper classes, as William enfeoffed lands to be held directly from the king. More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life: the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery, which may or may not have been linked to the invasion. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government.

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29 September: 1864 - American Civil War: The Battle of Chaffin's Farm is fought.

Battle_of_Chaffin%27s_Farm

 

30 September: 1901 - Hubert Cecil Booth patents the vacuum cleaner.

Hubert Cecil Booth

English engineer

For the English cricketer, see Cecil Booth (cricketer).

Hubert Cecil Booth (4 July 1871 – 14 January 1955)^[1] was an English engineer, best known for having invented one of the first powered vacuum cleaners.^[2][3][4][5]

He also designed Ferris wheels,^[1][6] suspension bridges and factories.^[1] Later he became Chairman and Managing Director of the British Vacuum Cleaner and Engineering Co.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Institution of Civil Engineers (1955). "Obituary. Hubert Cecil Booth. 1871–1955". ICE Proceedings. 4 (4): 631–632. doi:10.1680/iicep.1955.11412.
2. ^ Gantz, Carroll (21 September 2012). The Vacuum Cleaner: A History. McFarland. p. 49 ISBN 0786465522
3. ^ "Sucking up to the vacuum cleaner". www.bbc.co.uk. 30 August 2001. Retrieved 11 August 2008.
4. ^ Wohleber, Curt (Spring 2006). "The Vacuum Cleaner". Invention & Technology Magazine. American Heritage Publishing. Archived from the original on 13 March 2010.
5. ^ Cole, David; Browning, Eve; E. H. Schroeder, Fred (2003). Encyclopedia of modern everyday inventions. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31345-5.
6. ^ "Far-right fury over British bid for Vienna wheel". The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited. 4 June 2008. Retrieved 20 December 2010.

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1 October: 2005 - Bombing kills 19 people in Bali.

2005 Bali bombing

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2 October: 1950 - Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz first published

Peanuts

Comic strip by Charles M. Schulz

This article is about the comic strip. For the edible legume, see Peanut. For other uses, see Peanut (disambiguation).

Peanuts is a syndicated daily and Sunday American comic strip written and illustrated by Charles M. Schulz. The strip's original run extended from 1950 to 2000, continuing in reruns afterward. Peanuts is among the most popular and influential in the history of comic strips, with 17,897 strips published in all,^[1] making it "arguably the longest story ever told by one human being";^[2] it is considered to be the grandfather of slice of life cartoons.^{[not verified in body]} At the time of Schulz's death in 2000, Peanuts ran in over 2,600 newspapers, with a readership of roughly 355 million across 75 countries, and had been translated into 21 languages.^[3] It helped to cement the four-panel gag strip as the standard in the United States,^[4] and together with its merchandise earned Schulz more than $1 billion.^[1]

Peanuts focuses on a social circle of young children, where adults exist but are rarely seen or heard. The main character, Charlie Brown, is meek, nervous, and lacks self-confidence. He is unable to fly a kite, win a baseball game, or kick a football held by his irascible friend Lucy, who always pulls it away at the last instant.^[5] Peanuts is a literate strip with philosophical, psychological, and sociological overtones, which was innovative in the 1950s.^[6] Its humor is psychologically complex and driven by the characters' interactions and relationships. The comic strip has been adapted in animation and theater.

Schulz drew the strip for nearly 50 years, with no assistants, even in the lettering and coloring process.^[7]

1. ^ ^{a b} Bethune 2007.
2. ^ Boxer 2000.
3. ^ Podger 2000.
4. ^ Walker 2002, p. ^{[page needed]}.
5. ^ The World Encyclopedia of Comics, edited by Maurice Horn, published in 1977 by Avon Books
6. ^ "comic strip :: The first half of the 20th century: the evolution of the form". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
7. ^ Yoe, Craig, Clean Cartoonists' Dirty Drawings. San Francisco, Calif.: Last Gasp, 2007, p. 36; Michaelis, David, Schulz and Peanuts: A Biography. New York: HarperPerennial, 2008, p. ix.

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3 October: 1951 - "Shot Heard 'Round the World" One of the greatest moments in Major League Baseball history occurs when the New York Giants' Bobby Thomson hits a game winning home run in the bottom of the ninth inning off of the Brooklyn Dodgers pitcher Ralph Branca, to win the National League pennant after being down 14 games.

Shot_Heard_%27Round_the_World_(baseball)

 

4 October: 1883 - First run of the Orient Express.

Orient Express

Luxury passenger train service in Europe

For other uses, see Orient Express (disambiguation).

The Orient Express was a long-distance passenger luxury train service created in 1883 by the Belgian company Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL) that operated until 2009. The train traveled the length of continental Europe, with terminal stations in Paris in the northwest and Istanbul in the southeast, and branches extending service to Athens, Brussels, and London.

The Orient Express embarked on its initial journey on June 5, 1883, from Paris to Vienna, eventually extending to Istanbul, thus connecting the western and eastern extremities of Europe. The route saw alterations and expansions, including the introduction of the Simplon Orient Express following the opening of the Simplon Tunnel in 1919, enhancing the service's allure and importance. Several routes concurrently used the Orient Express name, or variations. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name became synonymous with intrigue and luxury rail travel. The city names most prominently served and associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Istanbul,^[2][3] the original termini of the timetabled service.^[4] The rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times.

However, post-World War II, the Orient Express struggled to maintain its preeminence amid changing geopolitical landscapes and the rise of air travel. The route stopped serving Istanbul in 1977, cut back to a through overnight service from Paris to Bucharest, which was cut back further in 1991 to Budapest, then in 2001 to Vienna, before departing for the last time from Paris on 8 June 2007.^[5][6] After this, the route, still called the Orient Express, was shortened to start from Strasbourg,^[7] leaving daily after the arrival of a TGV from Paris. On 14 December 2009, the Orient Express ceased to operate entirely and the route disappeared from European railway timetables, a "victim of high-speed trains and cut-rate airlines".^[8]

In contemporary times, the legacy of the Orient Express has been revived through private ventures like the Venice Simplon-Orient-Express,^[9] initiated by James Sherwood in 1982, which offers nostalgic journeys through Europe in restored 1920s and 1930s CIWL carriages, including the original route from Paris to Istanbul.^[10] Since December 2021, an ÖBB Nightjet runs three times per week on the Paris-Vienna route, although not branded as Orient Express.^[11] Beginning in 2025, Accor will launch its own Orient Express with journeys from Paris to Istanbul.^[12]

1. ^ "A Journey to History: The Orient Express Story". Pera Palace Hotel. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
2. ^ "Orient-Express | train | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
3. ^ "Orient-Express : attention au départ !". Orient Express (in French). Archived from the original on 10 January 2014.
4. ^ Zax, David (1 March 2007). "A Brief History of the Orient Express". Smithsonian. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
5. ^ Calder, Simon (22 August 2009). "Murder of the Orient Express – End of the line for celebrated train service". The Independent. London. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
6. ^ "A History of the Orient Express". Agatha Christie Limited. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
7. ^ "'hidden europe' magazine e-news Issue 2007/15". 7 June 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2007.
8. ^ "The Orient Express Takes Its Final Trip". NPR. 12 December 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
9. ^ "The Curious Rebranding of Orient-Express Hotels Into the Belmond Brand". Skift. 26 February 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
10. ^ "Venice Simplon-Orient-Express – Luxury Train from London to Venice". www.vsoe.com.
11. ^ "France". ÖBB. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
12. ^ Yevhenii Podolskyi (26 October 2022). "The revived Orient Express will leave Paris for Istanbul in 2025". DIP.

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5 October: 1969 - The first episode of the famous comedy show Monty Python's Flying Circus aired on BBC.

Monty_Python%27s_Flying_Circus

 

6 October: 1889 - Thomas Edison shows his first motion picture

Thomas Edison

American inventor and businessman (1847–1931)

"Edison" redirects here. For other uses, see Edison (disambiguation).

Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman.^[1][2][3] He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures.^[4] These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world.^[5] He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory.^[6]

Edison was raised in the American Midwest. Early in his career he worked as a telegraph operator, which inspired some of his earliest inventions.^[4] In 1876, he established his first laboratory facility in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where many of his early inventions were developed. He later established a botanical laboratory in Fort Myers, Florida, in collaboration with businessmen Henry Ford and Harvey S. Firestone, and a laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey, that featured the world's first film studio, the Black Maria. With 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as patents in other countries, Edison is regarded as the most prolific inventor in American history.^[7] Edison married twice and fathered six children. He died in 1931 due to complications from diabetes.

1. ^ Adrian Wooldridge (September 15, 2016). "The alphabet of success". The Economist. Archived from the original on September 16, 2016. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
2. ^ Sproule, Anna (2000). Thomas Alva Edison: The World's Greatest Inventor (1st U.S. ed.). Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch Press. ISBN 978-1-56711-331-0.
3. ^ "Hangout – Thomas Edison". state.nj.us. State of New Jersey.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Con Edison: A Brief History of Con Edison – electricity". Coned.com. January 1, 1998. Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved October 11, 2012.
5. ^ "The Wizard of Menlo Park". The Franklin Institute. Archived from the original on March 5, 2013. Retrieved February 24, 2013.
6. ^ Walsh, Bryan (July 15, 2009). "The Electrifying Edison". Time. Archived from the original on July 18, 2009. Retrieved December 31, 2013.
7. ^ Boyer, Paul S., ed. (2001). The Oxford Companion to United States History. Oxford University Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-19-989109-2. OCLC 57680178.

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7 October: 1763 - George III of Great Britain issues British Royal Proclamation of 1763, closing aboriginal lands in North America north and west of Alleghenies to white settlements.

British Royal Proclamation of 1763

Redirect to:

• Royal Proclamation of 1763

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8 October: 1582 - Because of the implementation of the Gregorian calendar this day does not exist in this year in Italy, Poland, Portugal and Spain.

Gregorian calendar

Internationally accepted civil calendar

For the calendar of religious holidays and periods, see Liturgical year. For this year's Gregorian calendar, see Leap year starting on Monday.

Not to be confused with Georgian calendar.

The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world.^[1][a] It went into effect in October 1582 following the papal bull Inter gravissimas issued by Pope Gregory XIII, which introduced it as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years differently so as to make the average calendar year 365.2425 days long, more closely approximating the 365.2422-day 'tropical' or 'solar' year that is determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun.

The rule for leap years is:

Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100, but these centurial years are leap years if they are exactly divisible by 400. For example, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the year 2000 is.

— United States Naval Observatory^[2]

There were two reasons to establish the Gregorian calendar. First, the Julian calendar assumed incorrectly that the average solar year is exactly 365.25 days long, an overestimate of a little under one day per century, and thus has a leap year every four years without exception. The Gregorian reform shortened the average (calendar) year by 0.0075 days to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes.^[3] Second, in the years since the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325,^[b] the excess leap days introduced by the Julian algorithm had caused the calendar to drift such that the March equinox was occurring well before its nominal 21 March date. This date was important to the Christian churches because it is fundamental to the calculation of the date of Easter. To reinstate the association, the reform advanced the date by 10 days:^[c] Thursday 4 October 1582 was followed by Friday 15 October 1582.^[3] In addition, the reform also altered the lunar cycle used by the Church to calculate the date for Easter, because astronomical new moons were occurring four days before the calculated dates. Whilst the reform introduced minor changes, the calendar continued to be fundamentally based on the same geocentric theory as its predecessor.^[4]

The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe and their overseas possessions. Over the next three centuries, the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox countries also gradually moved to what they called the "Improved calendar",^[d] with Greece being the last European country to adopt the calendar (for civil use only) in 1923.^[5] However, many Orthodox churches continue to use the Julian calendar for religious rites and the dating of major feasts. To unambiguously specify a date during the transition period (in contemporary documents or in history texts), both notations were given, tagged as 'Old Style' or 'New Style' as appropriate. During the 20th century, most non-Western countries also adopted the calendar, at least for civil purposes.

1. ^ Dershowitz & Reingold (2008), p. 45. "The calendar in use today in most of the world is the Gregorian or new-style calendar designed by a commission assembled by Pope Gregory XIII in the sixteenth century.".
2. ^ "Introduction to Calendars". United States Naval Observatory. n.d. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
3. ^ ^{a b} Gregory XIII (1582).
4. ^ Applebaum, Wilbur (2000). "Clavius, Christoph (1538-1612)". Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-1503-1.
5. ^ Blegen (2013).

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9 October: 1888 - The Washington Monument officially opens to the general public

Washington Monument

U.S. national memorial in Washington, D.C.

Not to be confused with Washington Monument (Baltimore).

For other uses, see Washington Monument (disambiguation).

The Washington Monument is an obelisk on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, a Founding Father of the United States, victorious commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783 in the American Revolutionary War, and the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Standing east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial,^[2] the monument is made of bluestone gneiss for the foundation and of granite for the construction.^[3] The outside facing consists, due to the interrupted building process, of three different kinds of white marble:^[4] in the lower third, marble from Baltimore County, Maryland, followed by a narrow zone of marble from Sheffield, Berkshire County, Massachusetts, and, in the upper part, the so-called Cockeysville Marble. Both "Maryland Marbles" came from the "lost” Irish Quarry Town of "New Texas".^[5] It is both the world's tallest predominantly stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk,^[A] standing 554 feet 7+11⁄32 inches (169.046 m) tall, according to U.S. National Geodetic Survey measurements in 2013–2014.^[B] It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances.^[A] It was the world's tallest structure between 1884 and 1889, after which it was overtaken by the Eiffel Tower, in Paris. Previously, the tallest structures were Lincoln Cathedral (1311–1548; 525 ft) and Cologne Cathedral (1880–present; 515 ft).

Construction of the presidential memorial began in 1848. The construction was suspended from 1854 to 1877 due to funding challenges, a struggle for control over the Washington National Monument Society, and the American Civil War. The stone structure was completed in 1884, and the internal ironwork, the knoll, and installation of memorial stones was completed in 1888. A difference in shading of the marble, visible about 150 feet (46 m) or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills from South Carolina, but construction omitted his proposed colonnade for lack of funds, and construction proceeded instead with a bare obelisk. The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the first stone was laid atop the unfinished stump on August 7, 1880; the capstone was set on December 6, 1884; the completed monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885;^[16] it opened on October 9, 1888.

The Washington Monument is a hollow Egyptian-style stone obelisk with a 500-foot-tall (152.4 m) column surmounted by a 55-foot-tall (16.8 m) pyramidion. Its walls are 15 feet (4.6 m) thick at its base and 1+1⁄2 feet (0.46 m) thick at their top. The marble pyramidion's walls are 7 inches (18 cm) thick, supported by six arches: two between opposite walls, which cross at the center of the pyramidion, and four smaller arches in the corners. The top of the pyramidion is a large, marble capstone with a small aluminum pyramid at its apex, with inscriptions on all four sides. The bottom 150 feet (45.7 m) of the walls, built during the first phase from 1848 to 1854, are composed of a pile of bluestone gneiss rubble stones (not finished stones) held together by a large amount of mortar with a facade of semi-finished marble stones about 1+1⁄4 feet (0.4 m) thick. The upper 350 feet (106.7 m) of the walls, built in the second phase, 1880–1884, are of finished marble surface stones, half of which project into the walls, partly backed by finished granite stones.^[17]

The interior is occupied by iron stairs that spiral up the walls, with an elevator in the center, each supported by four iron columns, which do not support the stone structure. The stairs are in fifty sections, most on the north and south walls, with many long landings stretching between them along the east and west walls. These landings allowed many inscribed memorial stones of various materials and sizes to be easily viewed while the stairs were accessible (until 1976), plus one memorial stone between stairs that is difficult to view. The pyramidion has eight observation windows, two per side, and eight red aircraft warning lights, two per side. Two aluminum lightning rods, connected by the elevator support columns to groundwater, protect the monument. The monument's present foundation is 37 feet (11.3 m) thick, consisting of half of its original bluestone gneiss rubble encased in concrete. At the northeast corner of the foundation, 21 feet (6.4 m) below ground, is the marble cornerstone, including a zinc case filled with memorabilia.^[17] Fifty American flags fly on a large circle of poles centered on the monument.^[18] In 2001, a temporary screening facility was added to the entrance to prevent a terrorist attack.^[19] A Virginia-centered earthquake in 2011 slightly damaged the monument, and it was closed until 2014.^[20] The monument was closed for elevator repairs, security upgrades, and mitigation of soil contamination in August 2016 before reopening again fully in September 2019.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} National Geodetic Survey, "2013–2014 Survey of the Washington Monument" Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, 2015. Horizontal coordinates converted from NAD83(2011) to WGS84(G1674), the required coordinate system for Wikipedia coordinates, via NGS Horizontal Time-Dependent Positioning, epoch 2010.0 including ellipsoidal height.
2. ^ "Foundation Statement for the National Mall and Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Park" (PDF), National Park Service, retrieved May 20, 2010
3. ^ ^{a b} Wunsch, Aaron V. (1994). Historic American Buildings Survey, Washington Monument, HABS DC-428 (text) (PDF). National Park Service.
4. ^ Washington's Geologic Setting., Website U.S. Geological Survey, retrieved on February 13, 2024.
5. ^ Ron Cassie: Recalling the “Lost” Irish Quarry Town of Texas in Baltimore County., "Baltimore magazine", November 2022, retrieved February 13, 2024.
6. ^ ^{a b} "CTBUH Criteria for Defining and Measuring Tall Buildings". ctbuh.org.
7. ^ National Geodetic Survey, "Why does the value obtained in 2014 ... disagree with the 1884 value ...?" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, 2015, picture of precise spot used.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference HSR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ ^{a b} Arzola, Robert R.; Lockett, Dana L.; Schara, Mark; Vazquez, Jose Raul (1994). Historic American Buildings Survey, Washington Monument, HABS DC-428 (drawings). National Park Service.
10. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the Washington Monument by the National Park Service". Nps.gov. Retrieved January 31, 2013.
11. ^ Thos. Lincoln Casey, "report of operations upon the Washington Monument for the year [1884]" in Letter from William W. Corcoran, Chairman of the Joint Commission for the Completion of the Washington Monument, transmitting the annual report of the Commission, December 19, 1884, U.S. Congressional Serial Set, Vol. 2310, 48th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives Misc. Doc. 8, p. 5. Available for free in most large United States libraries in government documents or online. Establish a connection to Readex collections before clicking on link.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Binczewski was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ "Aerial America: Washington D.C.". Aerial America. Smithsonian channel.
14. ^ Kelly, John (June 19, 2013). "Local: The Washington Monument is tall, but is it the tallest?". Washington Post. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
15. ^ Paul Gervais Bell Jr., "Monumental Myths" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Southwestern Historical Quarterly, vol. 103, 2000, frontispiece–14, pp. 13–14
16. ^ Marking a people's love, an article from The New York Times published February 22, 1885.
17. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Torres was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference flags was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference screening was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Earthquake was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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10 October: 1964 - The 1964 Summer Olympics opening ceremony at Tokyo, Japan, with first time of live Olympic telecast program by geostationary communication satellite.

The 1964 Summer Olympics

Redirect to:

• 1964 Summer Olympics

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11 October: 1982 - The Mary Rose, a Tudor gunship which sank on July 18 1545, is raised from the sea bed in the Solent Channel, near Portsmouth.

Mary Rose

Carrack-type warship of the English Tudor navy

For other uses, see Mary Rose (disambiguation).

The Mary Rose was a carrack in the English Tudor navy of King Henry VIII. She was launched in 1511 and served for 34 years in several wars against France, Scotland, and Brittany. After being substantially rebuilt in 1536, she saw her last action on 19 July 1545. She led the attack on the galleys of a French invasion fleet, but sank in the Solent, the strait north of the Isle of Wight.

The wreck of the Mary Rose was located in 1971 and was raised on 11 October 1982 by the Mary Rose Trust in one of the most complex and expensive maritime salvage projects in history. The surviving section of the ship and thousands of recovered artefacts are of great value as a Tudor period time capsule. The excavation and raising of the Mary Rose was a milestone in the field of maritime archaeology, comparable in complexity and cost to the raising of the 17th-century Swedish warship Vasa in 1961. The Mary Rose site is designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 by statutory instrument 1974/55. The wreck is a Protected Wreck managed by Historic England.

The finds include weapons, sailing equipment, naval supplies, and a wide array of objects used by the crew. Many of the artefacts are unique to the Mary Rose and have provided insights into topics ranging from naval warfare to the history of musical instruments. The remains of the hull have been on display at the Portsmouth Historic Dockyard since the mid-1980s while undergoing restoration. An extensive collection of well-preserved artefacts is on display at the Mary Rose Museum, built to display the remains of the ship and its artefacts.

Mary Rose was one of the largest ships in the English navy through more than three decades of intermittent war, and she was one of the earliest examples of a purpose-built sailing warship. She was armed with new types of heavy guns that could fire through the recently invented gun-ports. She was substantially rebuilt in 1536 and was also one of the earliest ships that could fire a broadside, although the line of battle tactics had not yet been developed. Several theories have sought to explain the demise of the Mary Rose, based on historical records, knowledge of 16th-century shipbuilding, and modern experiments. The precise cause of her sinking is subject to conflicting testimonies and a lack of conclusive evidence.

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12 October: 1810 - First Oktoberfest: The Bavarian royalty invites the citizens of Munich to join the celebration of the marriage of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria to Princess Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen.

Oktoberfest

World's largest Volksfest

This article is about the original festival in Munich. For Oktoberfest celebrations around the world, see Oktoberfest celebrations.

For other uses, see Oktoberfest (disambiguation).

Oktoberfest (German pronunciation: [ɔkˈtoːbɐˌfɛst] ^ⓘ; Bavarian: Wiesn, Oktobafest) is the world's largest Volksfest, featuring a beer festival and a travelling carnival, and is held annually in Munich, Bavaria, from mid- or late-September to the first Sunday in October, with more than six million international and national visitors attending the event. Locally, it is called d'Wiesn, after the colloquial name for the fairgrounds, Theresienwiese. Oktoberfest is an important part of Bavarian culture, having been held since the year 1810. Other cities across the world also hold Oktoberfest celebrations that are modeled after the original Munich event.

During the event, large quantities of Oktoberfest Beer are consumed: in 2014, 7.7 million litres (2,000,000 US gal) were served.^[1][2] Visitors also enjoy numerous attractions, such as amusement rides, side stalls, and games. There is also a wide variety of traditional foods available.

Oktoberfest originally took place in the 16-day period leading up to the first Sunday in October. In 1994, this longstanding schedule was modified in response to German reunification. As a result, if the first Sunday in October falls on the 1st or the 2nd, then the festival runs until 3 October (German Unity Day). Thus, the festival now runs for 17 days when the first Sunday is 2 October and 18 days when it is 1 October. In 2010, the festival lasted until the first Monday in October (4 October), to mark the event's bicentennial.

1. ^ "Oktoberfest Beer Consumption". 19 October 2014.
2. ^ "Oktoberfest in Munich: poured amount of beer 2020". Statista. Retrieved 8 April 2022.

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13 October: 1884 - Greenwich is established as universal time meridian of longitude.

Greenwich

Town in south-east London, England

This article is about Greenwich in London. For other uses, see Greenwich (disambiguation).

Human settlement in England

Greenwich (/ˈɡrɛnɪtʃ/ ^ⓘ GREN-itch, /-ɪdʒ/ -⁠ij, /ˈɡrɪn-/ GRIN-^[1][2]) is a town in south-east London, England, within the ceremonial county of Greater London. It is situated 5.5 miles (8.9 km) east-south-east of Charing Cross.

Greenwich is notable for its maritime history and for giving its name to the Greenwich Meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time. The town became the site of a royal palace, the Palace of Placentia, from the 15th century and was the birthplace of many Tudors, including Henry VIII and Elizabeth I. The palace fell into disrepair during the English Civil War and was demolished to be replaced by the Royal Naval Hospital for Sailors, designed by Sir Christopher Wren and his assistant Nicholas Hawksmoor. These buildings became the Royal Naval College in 1873, and they remained a military education establishment until 1998 when they passed into the hands of the Greenwich Foundation. The historic rooms within these buildings remain open to the public; other buildings are used by University of Greenwich and Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance.

The town became a popular resort in the 18th century and many grand houses were built there, such as Vanbrugh Castle (1717) established on Maze Hill, next to the park. From the Georgian period estates of houses were constructed above the town centre. The maritime connections of Greenwich were celebrated in the 20th century, with the siting of the Cutty Sark and Gipsy Moth IV next to the river front, and the National Maritime Museum in the former buildings of the Royal Hospital School in 1934.

Historically an ancient parish in the Blackheath Hundred of Kent, the town formed part of the growing conurbation of London in the 19th century. When the County of London, an administrative area designed to replace the Metropolitan Board of Works, was formed in 1889, the parish merged with those of Charlton-next-Woolwich, Deptford St Nicholas and Kidbrooke to create the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich. When local government in London was again reformed in 1965, it merged with most of the Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich, creating what is now the Royal Borough of Greenwich, a local authority district of Greater London.

1. ^ "Greenwich". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
2. ^ Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John, eds. (2011). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (David Jones) (18th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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14 October: 1947 - Chuck Yeager flies a Bell X-1 faster than the speed of sound, the first man to do so in level flight

Chuck Yeager

American flying ace and test pilot (1923–2020)

Brigadier General Charles Elwood Yeager (/ˈjeɪɡər/ YAY-gər, February 13, 1923 – December 7, 2020) was a United States Air Force officer, flying ace, and record-setting test pilot who in October 1947 became the first pilot in history confirmed to have exceeded the speed of sound in level flight.

Yeager was raised in Hamlin, West Virginia. His career began in World War II as a private in the United States Army, assigned to the Army Air Forces in 1941.^[a] After serving as an aircraft mechanic, in September 1942, he entered enlisted pilot training and upon graduation was promoted to the rank of flight officer (the World War II Army Air Force version of the Army's warrant officer), later achieving most of his aerial victories as a P-51 Mustang fighter pilot on the Western Front, where he was credited with shooting down 11.5 enemy aircraft (the half credit is from a second pilot assisting him in a single shootdown). On October 12, 1944, he attained "ace in a day" status, shooting down five enemy aircraft in one mission.

After the war, Yeager became a test pilot and flew many types of aircraft, including experimental rocket-powered aircraft for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Through the NACA program, he became the first human to officially break the sound barrier on October 14, 1947, when he flew the experimental Bell X-1 at Mach 1 at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13,700 m), for which he won both the Collier and Mackay trophies in 1948. He then went on to break several other speed and altitude records in the following years. In 1962, he became the first commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, which trained and produced astronauts for NASA and the Air Force.

Yeager later commanded fighter squadrons and wings in Germany, as well as in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. In recognition of his achievements and the outstanding performance ratings of those units, he was promoted to brigadier general in 1969 and inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1973, retiring on March 1, 1975. His three-war active-duty flying career spanned more than 30 years and took him to many parts of the world, including the Korean War zone and the Soviet Union during the height of the Cold War.

Yeager is referred to by many as one of the greatest pilots of all time, and was ranked fifth on Flying's list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation in 2013. Throughout his life, he flew more than 360 different types of aircraft over a 70-year period, and continued to fly for two decades after retirement as a consultant pilot for the United States Air Force.

1. ^ "My First Time". Air & Space/Smithsonian. Vol. 17, no. 2. June–July 2002. p. 48.

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15 October: 1951 - Television sitcom I Love Lucy premieres.

I Love Lucy

American television sitcom (1951–1957)

I Love Lucy is an American television sitcom that originally aired on CBS from October 15, 1951, to May 6, 1957, with a total of 180 half-hour episodes spanning six seasons.^[2] The series starred Lucille Ball and her husband Desi Arnaz, along with Vivian Vance and William Frawley, and follows the life of Lucy Ricardo (Ball), a young, middle-class housewife living in New York City, who often concocts plans with her best friends and landlords, Ethel and Fred Mertz (Vance and Frawley), to appear alongside her bandleader husband, Ricky Ricardo (Arnaz), in his nightclub. Lucy is depicted trying numerous schemes to mingle with and be a part of show business. After the series ended in 1957, a modified version of the show continued for three more seasons, with 13 one-hour specials, which ran from 1957 to 1960. It was first known as The Lucille Ball–Desi Arnaz Show, and later, in reruns, as The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour.

I Love Lucy became the most-watched show in the United States in four of its six seasons and it was the first to end its run at the top of the Nielsen ratings.^[3] As of 2011, episodes of the show have been syndicated in dozens of languages across the world and remain popular with an American audience of 40 million each year.^[4][5][6] A colorized version of its Christmas episode attracted more than eight million viewers when CBS aired it in prime time in 2013, 62 years after the show premiered.^[7]

The show – which was the first scripted television program to be filmed on 35 mm film in front of a studio audience, by cinematographer Karl Freund – won five Emmy Awards and received many nominations and honors. It was the first show to feature an ensemble cast.^[8] As such, it is often regarded as both one of the greatest and most influential sitcoms in history. In 2012, it was voted the 'Best TV Show of All Time' in a survey conducted by ABC News and People magazine.^[9] In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked it #12 on their list of the 101 Best Written TV Series.^[10]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ de Moraes, Lisa (April 16, 2015). "CBS Dusts Off And Colorizes 'I Love Lucy' Episodes For May Sweep Tryout". Deadline. Archived from the original on April 17, 2015. Retrieved October 1, 2022.
2. ^ "BBC - Comedy Guide - I Love Lucy". Archived from the original on December 5, 2004.
3. ^ DOSTIS, MELANIE (October 15, 2015). "Looking back at 'I Love Lucy' 64 years later". nydailynews.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2020. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
4. ^ "I love Lucy – 100 Years and Going Strong". Videomaker. August 5, 2011. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
5. ^ Elber, Lynn (August 5, 2011). "Legacy of 'I Love Lucy' a force in comedy". The Durango Herald. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
6. ^ "I Love Lucy Goes Live! – Today's News: Our Take". TVGuide.com. September 14, 2011. Archived from the original on September 15, 2013. Retrieved November 22, 2012. [...]which owns the rights to the series still seen on TV by 40 million Americans each year.
7. ^ Kozinn, Allan (December 23, 2013). "Viewers Found Much to Love in 'Lucy' Christmas Show". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
8. ^ "I Love Lucy". oldtimecooking.com. 2014. Archived from the original on April 5, 2016. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
9. ^ "I Love Lucy Voted the Best TV Show of All Time". ABC News. Disney-ABC Television Group. September 18, 2012. Archived from the original on November 18, 2018. Retrieved July 16, 2014.
10. ^ "101 Best Written TV Series". Writers Guild of America West. June 2, 2013.

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16 October: 1995 - The Million Man March occurs in Washington, DC.

Million Man March

1995 demonstration by African-American men in Washington, D.C.

Not to be confused with March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom or Million People March.

The Million Man March was a large gathering of African-American men in Washington, D.C., on October 16, 1995. Called by Louis Farrakhan, it was held on and around the National Mall. The National African American Leadership Summit, a leading group of civil rights activists and the Nation of Islam working with scores of civil rights organizations, including many local chapters of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (but not the national NAACP) formed the Million Man March Organizing Committee. The founder of the National African American Leadership Summit, Benjamin Chavis Jr., served as National Director of the Million Man March.

The committee invited many prominent speakers to address the audience, and African-American men from across the United States converged in Washington to "convey to the world a vastly different picture of the Black male"^[1]: 152 and to unite in self-help and self-defense against economic and social ills plaguing the African-American community.

The march took place in the context of a larger grassroots movement that set out to win politicians' attention for urban and minority issues through widespread voter registration campaigns.^[2]: 245 On the same day, there was a parallel event called the Day of Absence, organized by women in conjunction with the March leadership, which was intended to engage the large population of Black Americans who would not be able to attend the demonstration in Washington. On this date, all Blacks were encouraged to stay home from their usual school, work, and social engagements, in favor of attending teach-ins, and worship services, focusing on the struggle for a healthy and self-sufficient Black community. Further, organizers of the Day of Absence hoped to use the occasion to make great headway on their voter registration drive.^[1]: 147

A conflict arose about crowd size estimates between March organizers and National Park Service officials. The National Park Service issued an estimate of about 400,000 attendees,^[3] a number significantly lower than march organizers had hoped for.^[2]: 243 After a heated exchange between leaders of the march and the NPS, ABC-TV-funded researchers at Boston University estimated the crowd size to be about 837,000 members, with a 20% margin of error.^[3]

Two years after the march, the Million Woman March was held in response to concerns that the Million Man March had focused on Black men to the exclusion of Black women.^[4]

1. ^ ^{a b} Million Man March National Organizing Committee (January 1996). "Million Man March Fact Sheet". In Madhubuti, Haki R.; Karenga, Maulana (eds.). Million Man March / Day of Absence; A Commemorative Anthology; Speeches, Commentary, Photography, Poetry, Illustrations, Documents. Chicago: Third World Press.
2. ^ ^{a b} Nelson Jr., William E. (1998). "Black Church Politics and The Million Man March". In Best, Felton O. (ed.). Black Religious Leadership from the Slave Community to the Million Man March; flames of fire. Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press.
3. ^ ^{a b} "BU Remote Sensing Million Man March page". Archived from the original on 2017-10-12. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
4. ^ Quarles, Norma (16 October 1995). "Behind Million Men, black women". Cable News Network, Inc. Retrieved 17 April 2009.

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17 October: 1777 - American troops defeat the British in the Battle of Saratoga.

Battle of Saratoga

Redirect to:

• Battles of Saratoga

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18 October: 1968 - Bob Beamon sets a world record of 8.90m in the long jump at the Mexico City games. This becomes the longest unbroken track and field record in history, standing for 23 years, and is later named by Sports Illustrated magazine as one of the five greatest sporting moments of the 20th century.

Bob Beamon

American long jumper (born 1946)

Robert Beamon (born August 29, 1946) is an American former track and field athlete, best known for his world record in the long jump at the Mexico City Olympics in 1968. By jumping 8.90 m (29 ft 2+1⁄4 in), he broke the existing record by a margin of 55 cm (21+3⁄4 in) and his world record stood for almost 23 years until it was broken in 1991 by Mike Powell. The jump is still the Olympic record and the second-longest in history unassisted by wind.

1. ^ ^{a b c} Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. "Bob Beamon". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference auto was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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19 October: 1943 - Streptomycin, the first antibiotic remedy for tuberculosis, is isolated by researchers at Rutgers University.

Streptomycin

Aminoglycoside antibiotic

Look up streptomycin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Streptomycin is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections,^[3] including tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium complex, endocarditis, brucellosis, Burkholderia infection, plague, tularemia, and rat bite fever.^[3] For active tuberculosis it is often given together with isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide.^[4] It is administered by injection into a vein or muscle.^[3]

Common side effects include vertigo, vomiting, numbness of the face, fever, and rash.^[3] Use during pregnancy may result in permanent deafness in the developing baby.^[3] Use appears to be safe while breastfeeding.^[4] It is not recommended in people with myasthenia gravis or other neuromuscular disorders.^[4] Streptomycin is an aminoglycoside.^[3] It works by blocking the ability of 30S ribosomal subunits to make proteins, which results in bacterial death.^[3]

Albert Schatz first isolated streptomycin in 1943 from Streptomyces griseus.^[5][6] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.^[7] The World Health Organization classifies it as critically important for human medicine.^[8]

1. ^ "Antibiotic abbreviations list". Retrieved June 22, 2023.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Zhu2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} "Streptomycin Sulfate". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved December 8, 2016.
4. ^ ^{a b c} World Health Organization (2009). Stuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR (eds.). WHO Model Formulary 2008. World Health Organization. pp. 136, 144, 609. hdl:10665/44053. ISBN 9789241547659.
5. ^ Torok E, Moran E, Cooke F (2009). Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology. OUP Oxford. p. Chapter 2. ISBN 9780191039621. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017.
6. ^ Renneberg R, Demain AL (2008). Biotechnology for Beginners. Elsevier. p. 103. ISBN 9780123735812. Archived from the original on September 10, 2017.
7. ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
8. ^ World Health Organization (2019). Critically important antimicrobials for human medicine (6th revision ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/312266. ISBN 9789241515528. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.

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20 October: 1973 - The Sydney Opera House opens.

Sydney Opera House

Performing-arts centre in Australia

For the historical (1879–1900) theatre of the same name, see Opera House, Sydney.

The Sydney Opera House is a multi-venue performing arts centre in Sydney, Australia. Located on the foreshore of Sydney Harbour, it is widely regarded as one of the world's most famous and distinctive buildings and a masterpiece of 20th-century architecture.^[3][4]

Designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon, but completed by an Australian architectural team headed by Peter Hall, the building was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 20 October 1973,^[5] 16 years after Utzon's 1957 selection as winner of an international design competition. The Government of New South Wales, led by the premier, Joseph Cahill, authorised work to begin in 1958 with Utzon directing construction. The government's decision to build Utzon's design is often overshadowed by circumstances that followed, including cost and scheduling overruns as well as the architect's ultimate resignation.^[6]

The building and its surrounds occupy the whole of Bennelong Point on Sydney Harbour, between Sydney Cove and Farm Cove, adjacent to the Sydney central business district and the Royal Botanic Gardens, and near to the Sydney Harbour Bridge.

The building comprises multiple performance venues, which together host well over 1,500 performances annually, attended by more than 1.2 million people.^[7] Performances are presented by numerous performing artists, with many resident companies such as Opera Australia, the Sydney Theatre Company and the Sydney Symphony Orchestra. As one of the most popular visitor attractions in Australia, the site is visited by more than eight million people annually, and approximately 350,000 visitors take a guided tour of the building each year.^[8] The building is managed by the Sydney Opera House Trust, an agency of the New South Wales State Government.

On 28 June 2007 the Sydney Opera House became a UNESCO World Heritage Site,^[9] having been listed on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate since 1980, the National Trust of Australia register since 1983, the City of Sydney Heritage Inventory since 2000, the New South Wales State Heritage Register since 2003, and the Australian National Heritage List since 2005.^[10][11] The Opera House was also a finalist in the New7Wonders of the World campaign list.^[12][13]

1. ^ "Inflation Calculator". RBA. 14 February 1966. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
2. ^ Topographic maps 1:100000 9130 Sydney and 1:25000 91303N Parramatta River
3. ^ Environment, Department of the (23 April 2008). "World Heritage Places – The Sydney Opera House – World Heritage values". www.environment.gov.au. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
4. ^ Maher, Alannah (30 July 2021). "Seven Sydney Opera House designs that never saw the light of day". Time Out. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
5. ^ "Sydney Opera House history". Sydney Opera House Official Site. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
6. ^ "2003 Laureate". The Pritzker Architecture Prize. The Hyatt Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
7. ^ "Sydney Opera House 2015 Annual Report – Performing Arts" (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2015.^{[permanent dead link]}
8. ^ "How do you value an icon? The Sydney Opera House: economic, cultural and digital value" (PDF). Deloitte Access Economics. 2010. p. 70. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
9. ^ Braithwaite, David (28 June 2007). "Opera House wins top status". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
10. ^ "Sydney Opera House". New South Wales State Heritage Register. Department of Planning & Environment. H01685. Retrieved 3 September 2017. Text is licensed by State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) under CC-BY 4.0 licence.
11. ^ "Sydney Opera House, 2 Circular Quay East, Sydney, NSW, Australia". Australian Heritage Database. Department of the Environment and Energy, Australian Government. 12 July 2005. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
12. ^ "New7Wonders of the World". World of New7Wonders.
13. ^ "Sydney Opera House short-listed for new 'Seven Wonders'". ABC News.

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21 October: 1854 - Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 nurses were sent to the Crimean War.

Florence Nightingale

English social reformer, statistician, and founder of modern nursing

"The Lady with the Lamp" redirects here. For the 1951 film, see The Lady with a Lamp. For other uses, see Florence Nightingale (disambiguation).

Florence Nightingale OM RRC DStJ (/ˈnaɪtɪŋɡeɪl/; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was an English social reformer, statistician and the founder of modern nursing. Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during the Crimean War, in which she organised care for wounded soldiers at Constantinople.^[4] She significantly reduced death rates by improving hygiene and living standards. Nightingale gave nursing a favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of "The Lady with the Lamp" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.^[5][6]

Recent commentators have asserted that Nightingale's Crimean War achievements were exaggerated by the media at the time, but critics agree on the importance of her later work in professionalising nursing roles for women.^[7] In 1860, she laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world and is now part of King's College London.^[8] In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated on her birthday. Her social reforms included improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution laws that were harsh for women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.

Nightingale was a pioneer in statistics; she represented her analysis in graphical forms to ease drawing conclusions and actionables from data. She is famous for usage of the polar area diagram, also called the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram. This diagram is still regularly used in data visualisation.

Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She was also a pioneer in data visualisation with the use of infographics, using graphical presentations of statistical data in an effective way.^[7] Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and mysticism, has only been published posthumously.

1. ^ "Florence Nightingale". King's College London. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
2. ^ "Florence Nightingale 2nd rendition, 1890 – greetings to the dear old comrades of Balaclava". Internet Archive. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
3. ^ Buhnemann, Kristin (17 February 2020). "Florence Nightingale's Voice, 1890". florence-nightingale.co.uk. Florence Nightingale Museum London. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
4. ^ Strachey, Lytton (1918). Eminent Victorians. London: Chatto and Windus. p. 123.
5. ^ Swenson, Kristine (2005). Medical Women and Victorian Fiction. University of Missouri Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8262-6431-2.
6. ^ Ralby, Aaron (2013). "The Crimean War 1853–1856". Atlas of Military History. Parragon. pp. 281. ISBN 978-1-4723-0963-1.
7. ^ ^{a b} Bostridge, Mark (17 February 2011). "Florence Nightingale: the Lady with the Lamp". BBC. Archived from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
8. ^ Petroni, A (1969). "The first nursing school in the world – St. Thomas Hospital School in London". Munca Sanit. 17 (8): 449–454. PMID 5195090.

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22 October: 1962 - Cuban Missile Crisis: US President John F. Kennedy, after internal counsel from Dwight D. Eisenhower, announces that American spy planes have discovered Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba, and that he has ordered a naval "quarantine" of the island nation.

Cuban Missile Crisis

1962 confrontation between the US and USSR

"Missile Crisis" redirects here. For the missile crisis in Cyprus, see Cypriot S-300 crisis.

"Cuban Missile" redirects here. For the baseball player, see Aroldis Chapman.

The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis (Spanish: Crisis de Octubre) in Cuba, or the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Карибский кризис, romanized: Karibskiy krizis), was a 13-day confrontation between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, when American deployments of nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet deployments of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The crisis lasted from 16 to 28 October 1962. The confrontation is widely considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into full-scale nuclear war.^[5]

In 1961, the US government put Jupiter nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey. It had also trained a paramilitary force of Cuban exiles, which the CIA led in an attempt to invade Cuba and overthrow its government. Starting in November of that year, the US government engaged in a violent campaign of terrorism and sabotage in Cuba, referred to as the Cuban Project, which continued throughout the first half of the 1960s. The Soviet administration was concerned about a Cuban drift towards China, with which the Soviets had an increasingly fractious relationship. In response to these factors, the Soviet and Cuban governments agreed to place nuclear missiles on Cuba to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached during a meeting between Khrushchev and Castro in July 1962, and construction started later that summer.

A U-2 spy plane captured photographic evidence of medium- and long-range launch facilities in October. President John F. Kennedy convened a meeting of the National Security Council and other key advisers, forming the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM). Kennedy was advised to carry out an air strike on Cuban soil in order to compromise Soviet missile supplies, followed by an invasion of the Cuban mainland. He chose a less aggressive course in order to avoid a declaration of war. On 22 October Kennedy ordered a naval blockade, terming it a "quarantine", to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba.^[6] The use of the term "quarantine", rather than "blockade", enabled the US to avoid the implications of a state of war.^[7]

An agreement was eventually reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement not to invade Cuba again. Secretly, the United States agreed to dismantle all of the offensive weapons it had deployed to Turkey. There has been debate on whether Italy was also included in the agreement. While the Soviets dismantled their missiles, some Soviet bombers remained in Cuba, and the United States kept the naval quarantine in place until 20 November 1962.^[7] The blockade was formally ended on 20 November after all offensive missiles and bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba. The evident necessity of a quick and direct communication line between the two powers resulted in the Moscow–Washington hotline. A series of agreements later reduced US–Soviet tensions for several years.

The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, and the Soviets were seen as retreating from a situation that they had started. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis. According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation".^[8][9]

1. ^ https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/When%20The%20Russians%20Blinked-%20The%20U_S_%20Maritime%20Response%20To%20The%20Cuban%20Missile%20Crisis.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
2. ^ Keller, Renata (3 February 2024). "The Latin American Missile Crisis". Diplomatic History. 39 (2): 195–222. doi:10.1093/dh/dht134. JSTOR 26376653.
3. ^ "Milestones: 1961–1968 – The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962". history.state.gov. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019.
4. ^ Dobbs, Michael (2008). One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-4000-4358-3.
5. ^ Scott, Len; Hughes, R. Gerald (2015). The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Critical Reappraisal. Taylor & Francis. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-317-55541-4. Archived from the original on 29 July 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
6. ^ Society, National Geographic (21 April 2021). "Kennedy 'Quarantines' Cuba". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
7. ^ ^{a b} Jonathan, Colman (1 April 2019). "The US Legal Case for the Blockade of Cuba during the Missile Crisis, October–November 1962". Journal of Cold War Studies.
8. ^ William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (2004) p. 579.
9. ^ Jeffery D. Shields (7 March 2016). "The Malin Notes: Glimpses Inside the Kremlin during the Cuban Missile Crisis" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.

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