This day in .....

12 March 1912 – The Girl Guides (later renamed the Girl Scouts of the USA) are founded in the United States

Girl Guides

"Girl Scouts" redirects here. For other uses, see Girl Scouts (disambiguation).

For the South Korean film, see Girl Scout (film).

Movement for girls and young women

Girl Guides (known as Girl Scouts in the United States and some other countries) is a worldwide movement, originally and largely still designed for girls and women only. The movement began in 1909, when girls requested to join the then-grassroots Boy Scout Movement.^[1]

The movement developed in diverse ways in a variety of places around the world. In some places, girls joined or attempted to join preexisting Scouting organizations.^[2] In other places, all girl groups were started independently; some would later open up to boys, while others merged with boys' organizations. In other cases, mixed-sex groups were formed, some of which sometimes later disbanded. In the same way, the name "Girl Guide" or "Girl Scout" has been used by a variety of groups across different times and places.

The World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS) was formed in 1928 and has member organisations in 145 countries.^[3]

1. ^ Mills, Sarah (2011). "Scouting for Girls? Gender and the Scout Movement in Britain". Gender, Place & Culture. 18 (4): 537–556. doi:10.1080/0966369X.2011.583342.
2. ^ "Girlguiding – The history of changing girls' lives". Girlguiding. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
3. ^ World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts. "Membership". Archived from the original on August 7, 2012. Retrieved February 8, 2013.

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13 March 1781 – William Herschel discovers Uranus.

William Herschel

German-born British astronomer and composer (1738–1822)

For other uses, see William Herschel (disambiguation).

Frederick William Herschel^[2][3] KH, FRS (/ˈhɜːrʃəl/ HUR-shəl;^[4] German: Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈhɛʁʃl̩]; 15 November 1738 – 25 August 1822) was a German-British^[5] astronomer and composer. He frequently collaborated with his younger sister and fellow astronomer Caroline Herschel. Born in the Electorate of Hanover, William Herschel followed his father into the military band of Hanover, before immigrating to Britain in 1757 at the age of nineteen.

Herschel constructed his first large telescope in 1774, after which he spent nine years carrying out sky surveys to investigate double stars. Herschel published catalogues of nebulae in 1802 (2,500 objects) and in 1820 (5,000 objects). The resolving power of the Herschel telescopes revealed that many objects called nebulae in the Messier catalogue were actually clusters of stars. On 13 March 1781 while making observations he made note of a new object in the constellation of Gemini. This would, after several weeks of verification and consultation with other astronomers, be confirmed to be a new planet, eventually given the name of Uranus. This was the first planet to be discovered since antiquity, and Herschel became famous overnight. As a result of this discovery, George III appointed him Court Astronomer. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and grants were provided for the construction of new telescopes.

Herschel pioneered the use of astronomical spectrophotometry, using prisms and temperature measuring equipment to measure the wavelength distribution of stellar spectra. In the course of these investigations, Herschel discovered infrared radiation.^[6] Other work included an improved determination of the rotation period of Mars,^[7] the discovery that the Martian polar caps vary seasonally, the discovery of Titania and Oberon (moons of Uranus) and Enceladus and Mimas (moons of Saturn). Herschel was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1816. He was the first President of the Royal Astronomical Society when it was founded in 1820. He died in August 1822, and his work was continued by his only son, John Herschel.

1. ^ Hoskin, Michael (June 2013). "The Herschel knighthoods under scrutiny". Astronomy & Geophysics. 54 (3): 3.23 – 3.24. doi:10.1093/astrogeo/att080.
2. ^ Hoskin, Michael, ed. (2003). Caroline Herschel's autobiographies. Cambridge: Science History Publ. p. 13. ISBN 978-0905193069.
3. ^ "William Herschel | Biography, Education, Telescopes, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
4. ^ Wells, J. C. (2000). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Pearson Longman. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-582-36467-7.
5. ^ "Sir William Herschel | British-German astronomer". 21 August 2023.
6. ^ "Herschel discovers infrared light". Cool Cosmos. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Copus was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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14 March 1964 – Jack Ruby is convicted of killing Lee Harvey Oswald, the assumed assassin of John F. Kennedy.

Jack Ruby

Murderer of Lee Harvey Oswald (1911–1967)

For the Jamaican record producer, see Jack Ruby (record producer). For the song by Camper Van Beethoven, see Key Lime Pie (album). For the song by Deep Purple, see Abandon (album).

Jack Leon Ruby (born Jacob Leon Rubenstein; c.^[1][2] March 25, 1911 – January 3, 1967) was an American nightclub owner who murdered Lee Harvey Oswald on November 24, 1963, two days after Oswald assassinated President John F. Kennedy.

Born in Chicago, Ruby operated nightclubs in Texas. On November 24, 1963, two days after President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Ruby shot and mortally wounded Oswald in Dallas Police Headquarters and was immediately arrested. The shooting happened on live television. Ruby was convicted and sentenced to death; this was overturned on appeal, and he was granted a new trial, but Ruby fell ill, was diagnosed with cancer, and died of a pulmonary embolism on January 3, 1967.

In 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald, that Ruby shot Oswald on impulse and in retaliation for the Kennedy assassination. The Commission's findings are supported by all available evidence and Ruby's own testimony.

However, the death of Oswald in police custody so soon after the assassination of Kennedy sparked unfounded associations between Ruby and the then-new conspiracy theories surrounding the Kennedy assassination.

1. ^ ^{a b} Birth records were not officially kept in Chicago prior to 1915, and among school records, driver's licenses, and arrest records, there were six different dates, ranging from March to June 1911.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference dob2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Jack Ruby sentenced to death for murdering Lee Harvey Oswald". Archived from the original on December 23, 2021. Retrieved December 23, 2021.

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15 March 44 BC – The assassination of Julius Caesar takes place on the Ides of March.

Assassination of Julius Caesar

44 BCE murder of the Roman dictator

"Death of Caesar" redirects here. For other uses, see Death of Caesar (disambiguation) and Assassination of Julius Caesar (disambiguation).

Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC by a group of senators during a Senate session at the Curia of Pompey, located within Rome's Theatre of Pompey. The conspirators, numbering between 60 and 70 individuals and led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, stabbed Caesar approximately 23 times. They justified the act as a preemptive defense of the Roman Republic, asserting that Caesar's accumulation of lifelong political authority—including his perpetual dictatorship and other honors—threatened republican traditions.

The assassination failed to achieve its immediate objective of restoring the Republic's institutions. Instead, it precipitated Caesar's posthumous deification, triggered the Liberators' civil war (43–42 BC) between his supporters and the conspirators, and contributed to the collapse of the Republic. These events ultimately culminated in the rise of the Roman Empire under Augustus, marking the beginning of the Principate era.

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16 March 1898 – In Melbourne, the representatives of five colonies adopt a constitution, which would become the basis of the Commonwealth of Australia.

Constitution of Australia

Supreme law of Australia

United Kingdom legislation

The Constitution of Australia (also known as the Commonwealth Constitution) is the fundamental law that governs the political structure of Australia. It is a written constitution, which establishes the country as a federation under a constitutional monarchy governed with a parliamentary system. Its eight chapters set down the structure and powers of the three constituent parts of the federal level of government: the Parliament, the Executive Government and the Judicature.

The Constitution was drafted between 1891 and 1898 at a series of conventions conducted by representatives of the six self-governing British colonies in Australia: New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania.^[a] This final draft was then approved by each state in a series of referendums from 1898 to 1900. The agreed constitution was transmitted to London where, after some minor modifications, it was enacted as section 9 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It came into effect on 1 January 1901, at which point the six colonies became states within the new Commonwealth of Australia.

The Constitution is the primary, but not exclusive, source of Australian constitutional law; it operates alongside constitutional conventions, state constitutions, the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Australia Acts 1986, prerogative instruments and judicial interpretations of these laws by the High Court of Australia.

The document may only be amended by referendum, through the procedure set out in section 128. This requires a double majority: a nationwide majority as well as a majority of voters in a majority of states. Only eight of the 45 proposed amendments put to a referendum have passed.^[3] Proposals to amend the document to recognise Indigenous Australians and to become a republic are the subject of significant contemporary debate. The most recent referendum occurred on 14 October 2023, in which a proposed amendment to establish an Indigenous Voice to Parliament was rejected.^[4]

1. ^ "Catch a glimpse of the original Australian Constitution at National Archives". National Archives of Australia. 22 June 2023.
2. ^ "The Federation of Australia". Parliamentary Education Office. 12 July 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
3. ^ "Referendum dates and results". Australian Electoral Commission. 7 November 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
4. ^ Worthington, Brett (14 October 2023). "Australians reject Indigenous recognition via Voice to Parliament, referendum set for defeat". ABC News.

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17 March 1969 – Golda Meir becomes the first female Prime Minister of Israel.

Golda Meir

Prime Minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974

Golda Meir^{[nb 1]} (née Mabovitch; 3 May 1898 – 8 December 1978) was the fourth prime minister of Israel, serving from 1969 to 1974. She was Israel's first and only female head of government.^[5]

Born into a Jewish family in Kiev in what was then the Russian Empire (now the capital of Ukraine), Meir immigrated with her family to the United States in 1906. She graduated from the Milwaukee State Normal School and found work as a teacher. While in Milwaukee, she embraced the Labor Zionist movement. In 1921, Meir and her husband immigrated to Mandatory Palestine, settling in Merhavia, later becoming the kibbutz's representative to the Histadrut. In 1934, she was elevated to the executive committee of the trade union. Meir held several key roles in the Jewish Agency during and after World War II. She was a signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948. Meir was elected to the Knesset in 1949 and served as Labor Minister until 1956, when she was appointed Foreign Minister by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. She retired from the ministry in 1966 due to ill health.

In 1969, Meir assumed the role of prime minister following the death of Levi Eshkol. Early in her tenure, she made multiple diplomatic visits to western leaders to promote her vision of peace in the region. The outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 caught Israel off guard and inflicted severe early losses on the army. The resulting public anger damaged Meir's reputation and led to an inquiry into the failings. Her Alignment coalition was denied a majority in the subsequent legislative election; she resigned the following year and was succeeded as prime minister by Yitzhak Rabin. Meir died in 1978 of lymphoma and was buried on Mount Herzl.

A controversial figure in Israel, Meir has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, but also widely blamed for the country being caught by surprise during the war of 1973. In addition, her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians were widely scorned.^[6] Most historians believe Meir was more successful as Minister of Labour and Housing than as Premier.^[7]

1. ^ "Meir". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on June 26, 2019. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
2. ^ "Meir, Golda". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021.
3. ^ "Meir". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
4. ^ "Golda Meir: An Outline of a Unique Life: A Chronological Survey of Gola Meir's Life and Legacy". The Golda Meir Center for Political Leadership (Metropolitan State University of Denver). Archived from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved February 20, 2014. Reference on name pronunciation (see "1956").
5. ^ Kort, Michael (2002). The Handbook of the Middle East. Lerner Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN 9781315170688. Archived from the original on April 20, 2023. Retrieved February 21, 2023.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOIGM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Meron Medzini was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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18 March 1959 – The Hawaii Admission Act is signed into law.

Hawaii Admission Act

Statute which established the State of Hawaii

The Admission Act, formally An Act to Provide for the Admission of the State of Hawaii into the Union (Pub. L. 86–3, 73 Stat. 4, enacted March 18, 1959) is a statute enacted by the United States Congress and signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower which dissolved the Territory of Hawaii and established the State of Hawaii as the 50th state to be admitted into the Union.^[1] Statehood became effective on August 21, 1959.^[2] Hawaii remains the most recent state to join the United States.

1. ^ Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. "Dwight D. Eisenhower: "Statement by the President Upon Signing the Hawaii Statehood Bill.," March 18, 1959". The American Presidency Project. University of California – Santa Barbara. Retrieved April 3, 2014.
2. ^ "48 USC 3 Hawaii".

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19 March 1932 – The Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened

Sydney Harbour Bridge

Bridge across Sydney Harbour in Australia

The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a steel through arch bridge in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, spanning Sydney Harbour from the central business district (CBD) to the North Shore. The view of the bridge, the Harbour, and the nearby Sydney Opera House is widely regarded as an iconic image of Sydney, and of Australia itself. Nicknamed "the Coathanger" because of its arch-based design, the bridge carries rail, vehicular, bicycle and pedestrian traffic.^[1][2]

Under the direction of John Bradfield of the New South Wales Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long of Middlesbrough, and opened in 1932.^[3][4] The bridge's general design, which Bradfield tasked the NSW Department of Public Works with producing, was a rough copy of the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City. The design chosen from the tender responses was original work created by Dorman Long, who leveraged some of the design from its own Tyne Bridge.^[5]

It is the tenth-longest spanning-arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge, measuring 134 m (440 ft) from top to water level.^[6] It was also the world's widest long-span bridge, at 48.8 m (160 ft) wide, until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012.^[7][8]

1. ^ "7BridgesWalk.com.au". Bridge History. Archived from the original on 29 August 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2006.
2. ^ "Sydney Harbour Bridge". Government of Australia. 14 August 2008. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
3. ^ "Dr J.J.C. Bradfield". Pylon Lookout: Sydney Harbour Bridge. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
4. ^ "Olympic connections across the UK". BBC News. 19 January 2012. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
5. ^ James Weirick (2007). "Radar Exhibition – Bridging Sydney". Archived from the original on 6 September 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
6. ^ "Sydney Harbour Bridge". culture.gov.au. Australian Government. Archived from the original on 20 September 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
7. ^ "Widest Bridge". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
8. ^ "Port Mann Bridge". Transportation Investment Corporation. British Columbia: Province of British Columbia. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012. Once complete, the new 10-lane Port Mann Bridge will the second largest and longest cable-supported bridge in North America, and at 65 metres wide it will be the widest bridge in the world.

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20 March 1760 – The Great Boston Fire of 1760 destroys 349 buildings.

Great Boston fire of 1760

Fire which destroyed much of downtown Boston, Massachusetts

The Great Boston fire of 1760 was a major conflagration that occurred on March 20, 1760, in Boston in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. The fire destroyed 349 buildings in the area between the modern Washington Street and Fort Hill, as well as several ships in port, and it left more than a thousand people homeless.

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21 March 1804 – Code Napoléon is adopted as French civil law.

Napoleonic Code

French civil code established in 1804

The Napoleonic Code (French: Code Napoléon), officially the Civil Code of the French (French: Code civil des Français; simply referred to as Code civil), is the French civil code established during the French Consulate in 1804 and still in force in France, although heavily and frequently amended since its inception.^[1] Although Napoleon himself was not directly involved in the drafting of the Code, as it was drafted by a commission of four eminent jurists,^[2] he chaired many of the commission's plenary sessions,^[3] and his support was crucial to its enactment.^[4]

The code, with its stress on clearly written and accessible law, was a major milestone in the abolition of the previous patchwork of feudal laws.^[5] Historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world.^[2][6]

The Napoleonic Code was not the first legal code to be established in a European country with a civil-law legal system; it was preceded by the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis (Bavaria, 1756), the Allgemeines Landrecht (Prussia, 1794), and the West Galician Code (Galicia, then part of Austria, 1797).^{[citation needed]} It was, however, the first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars.^[7][2][6] The Napoleonic Code influenced developing countries outside Europe attempting to modernise and defeudalise their countries through legal reforms, such as those in the Middle East,^[8] while in Latin America the Spanish and Portuguese had established their own versions of the civil code.^[9]

1. ^ Code civil des Français: édition originale et seule officielle. Paris: L'Imprimerie de la République. 1804. Retrieved 28 November 2016 – via Gallica.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Robert B. Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981)
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Foot01 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Roberts, Andrew, Napoleon: A Life,"Lawgiver"
5. ^ Lobingier, Charles Sumner (1918). "Napoleon and His Code" (PDF). Harvard Law Review. 32 (2): 114–134. doi:10.2307/1327640. JSTOR 1327640.
6. ^ ^{a b} "The Napoleonic Code | History of Western Civilization II". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
7. ^ 29 - The French Revolution and the Law, in Part IV - The Age of Reforms (1750–1814), Cambridge University Press, 31 July 2017; Antonio Padoa-Schioppa, Translated by Caterina Fitzgerald
8. ^ Mohamed A.M. Ismail (2016). Globalization and New International Public Works Agreements in Developing Countries: An Analytical Perspective. Routledge. p. 19. ISBN 9781317127031 – via Google Books. All civil codes of Arab Middle Eastern states are based on Napoleonic Codes and were influenced by Egyptian legislation
9. ^ Matta, Liana Fiol (1992). "Civil Law and Common Law in the Legal Method of Puerto Rico". The American Journal of Comparative Law. 40 (4): 783–815. doi:10.2307/840794. JSTOR 840794.

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22 March 1894 – The Stanley Cup ice hockey competition is held for the first time, in Montreal, Canada.

Stanley Cup

National Hockey League championship trophy

This article is about the National Hockey League championship trophy. For the playoff tournament, see Stanley Cup playoffs. For the beverage container, see Stanley Quencher. For other uses, see Stanley Cup (disambiguation).

The Stanley Cup (French: La Coupe Stanley) is the championship trophy awarded annually to the National Hockey League (NHL) playoff champion. It is the oldest existing trophy to be awarded to a professional sports franchise in North America, and the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) considers it to be one of the "most important championships available to the sport".^[1] The trophy was commissioned in 1892 as the Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup and is named after Lord Stanley of Preston, the Governor General of Canada, who donated it as an award to Canada's top-ranking amateur ice hockey club. The entire Stanley family supported the sport, the sons and daughters all playing and promoting the game.^[2] The first Cup was awarded in 1893 to the Montreal Hockey Club, and winners from 1893 to 1914 were determined by challenge games and league play. Professional teams first became eligible to challenge for the Stanley Cup in 1906. In 1915, the National Hockey Association (NHA) and the Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA), the two main professional ice hockey organizations, reached an agreement in which their respective champions would face each other annually for the Stanley Cup. It was established as the de facto championship trophy of the NHL in 1926 and then the de jure NHL championship prize in 1947.

There are actually three Stanley Cups: the original bowl of the "Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup", the authenticated "Presentation Cup", and the spelling-corrected "Permanent Cup" on display at the Hockey Hall of Fame whenever the Presentation Cup is not available. While the NHL has maintained control over the trophy itself and its associated trademarks, the NHL does not actually own the trophy but uses it by agreement with the two Canadian trustees of the Cup.^[3] The NHL has registered trademarks associated with the name and likeness of the Stanley Cup, although there has been dispute as to whether the league has the right to own trademarks associated with a trophy that it does not own.^[4]

The original bowl was made of silver and is 18.5 centimetres (7+5⁄16 in) high and 29 centimetres (11+7⁄16 in) in diameter. The current Stanley Cup is topped with a copy of the original bowl, made of a silver and nickel alloy. It has a height of 89.5 centimetres (35+1⁄4 in) and weighs 15.6 kilograms (34+1⁄2 lb).^[5] Like the Grey Cup, and unlike the trophies awarded by the other major professional sports leagues of North America, a new Stanley Cup is not made every year. The winners originally kept it until a new champion was crowned, but winning teams currently get the Stanley Cup during the summer and a limited number of days during the season. Every year since 1924, a select portion of the winning players, coaches, management, and club staff names are engraved on its bands, which is unusual among trophies. However, there is not enough room to include all the players and non-players, so some names must be omitted. Between 1924 and 1940, a new band was added almost every year that the trophy was awarded, earning the nickname "Stovepipe Cup" due to the unnatural height of all the bands. In 1947, the cup size was reduced, but not all the large rings were the same size. In 1958, the modern one-piece Cup was designed with a five-band barrel which could contain 13 winning teams per band. Every 13 years when the bottom band of the Stanley Cup is filled with names of champions, the top band is removed and retired to be displayed in the vault of the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto. The four bands below it are slid up one place and a new blank band added to the bottom. The first winning team engraved on the newest band is thus, in theory (see Engraving section below), displayed on the trophy for the next 65 years.^[6] It has been referred to as The Cup, Lord Stanley's Cup, The Holy Grail, or facetiously as Lord Stanley's Mug.^[7] The Stanley Cup is surrounded by numerous legends and traditions, the oldest of which is the winning team drinking champagne from it.

Since the 1914–15 season, the Cup has been won a combined 106 times by 21 current NHL teams and five teams no longer in existence. It was not awarded in 1919 because of the Spanish flu epidemic and in 2005 because of the 2004–05 NHL lockout. It was held by nine different teams between 1893 and 1914. The Montreal Canadiens have won it a record 24^{[nb 1]} times and are the most recent Canadian-based team to win it, doing so in 1993; the Detroit Red Wings have won it 11 times, the most of any United States–based NHL team, most recently in 2008. The current holders of the Cup are the Florida Panthers after their victory in 2024, their first in franchise history. More than 3,000 different names, including the names of over 1,300 players, had been engraved on it by 2017.

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Podnieks, Andrew (March 25, 2008). "Triple Gold Goalies... not". International Ice Hockey Federation. Archived from the original on August 25, 2017. Retrieved June 12, 2017.
2. ^ "Lord Stanley (of Preston)". Hockey Hall of Fame and Museum. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
3. ^ "Stanley Cup will stay put, even if NHL season is cancelled". National Post. Archived from the original on February 8, 2013. Retrieved September 20, 2012.
4. ^ "If the NHL won't use it, can Canada have the Stanley Cup back?". Ctvnews.ca. September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 20, 2012.
5. ^ "Stanley Cup Engraving Facts, Firsts, and Faux Pas". Hockey Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on October 26, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2008.
6. ^ "NHL.com—Stanley Cup evolving again with removal of 12 champions". National Hockey League. Retrieved February 23, 2021.
7. ^ "The Stanley Cup coming soon to a living room near you?". CNW Group. 2007. Archived from the original on May 7, 2007. Retrieved April 8, 2007.

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23 March 2010 – The Affordable Care Act becomes law in the United States

Affordable Care Act

U.S. federal statute also known as Obamacare

"Obamacare" redirects here. For the song, see Obamacare (song).

The Affordable Care Act (ACA), formally known as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) and informally as Obamacare, is a landmark U.S. federal statute enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 amendment, it represents the U.S. healthcare system's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.^[1][2][3][4] Most of the act's provisions are still in effect.

The ACA's major provisions came into force in 2014. By 2016, the uninsured share of the population had roughly halved, with estimates ranging from 20 to 24 million additional people covered.^[5][6] The law also enacted a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. After it went into effect, increases in overall healthcare spending slowed, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans.^[7]

The increased coverage was due, roughly equally, to an expansion of Medicaid eligibility and to changes to individual insurance markets. Both received new spending, funded through a combination of new taxes and cuts to Medicare provider rates and Medicare Advantage. Several Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports said that overall these provisions reduced the budget deficit, that repealing ACA would increase the deficit,^[8][9] and that the law reduced income inequality by taxing primarily the top 1% to fund roughly $600 in benefits on average to families in the bottom 40% of the income distribution.^[10]

The act largely retained the existing structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market, but individual markets were radically overhauled.^[1][11] Insurers were made to accept all applicants without charging based on preexisting conditions or demographic status (except age). To combat the resultant adverse selection, the act mandated that individuals buy insurance (or pay a monetary penalty) and that insurers cover a list of "essential health benefits".

Before and after enactment the ACA faced strong political opposition, calls for repeal and legal challenges. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Supreme Court ruled that states could choose not to participate in the law's Medicaid expansion, but upheld the law as a whole.^[12] The federal health insurance exchange, HealthCare.gov, faced major technical problems at the beginning of its rollout in 2013. Polls initially found that a plurality of Americans opposed the act, although its individual provisions were generally more popular.^[13] By 2017, the law had majority support.^[14] The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 set the individual mandate penalty at $0 starting in 2019 due to its overall unpopularity and to reduce the federal budget deficit.^[15][16]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Oberlander2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Blumenthal2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CohenEtAl was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference ReutersSCOTUS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO_Subsidy2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Uberoi, Namrata; Finegold, Kenneth; Gee, Emily (March 2, 2016). "Health Insurance Coverage and the Affordable Care Act, 2010–2016" (PDF). Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. ASPE. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from the original on December 5, 2021. Retrieved December 7, 2016.
7. ^ "Employer Health Benefits 2015". Kaiser Family Foundation. Archived from the original on April 12, 2020. Retrieved November 19, 2016.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO50252 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO22077 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO_Dist14 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Gruber, Jonathan (2011). "The Impacts of the Affordable Care Act: How Reasonable Are the Projections?". National Tax Journal. 64 (3): 893–908. doi:10.17310/ntj.2011.3.06. hdl:1721.1/72971. S2CID 232213290. Archived from the original on June 20, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference NatLawReview2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Kirzinger, Ashley; Sugarman, Elise; Brodie, Mollyann (December 1, 2016). "Kaiser Health Tracking Poll: November 2016". Kaiser Family Foundation. Archived from the original on December 1, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
14. ^ "Gallup: ObamaCare has majority support for first time". The Hill. Archived from the original on December 1, 2017. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
15. ^ "H.R.1 – An Act to provide for reconciliation pursuant to titles II and V of the concurrent resolution on the budget for fiscal year 2018". Congress.gov. November 8, 2024.
16. ^ "Repealing the Individual Health Insurance Mandate: An Updated Estimate | Congressional Budget Office". www.cbo.gov. November 8, 2017. Retrieved November 8, 2024.

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23 March 2010 – The Affordable Care Act becomes law in the United States

Affordable Care Act

U.S. federal statute also known as Obamacare

"Obamacare" redirects here. For the song, see Obamacare (song).

The Affordable Care Act (ACA), formally known as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) and informally as Obamacare, is a landmark U.S. federal statute enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 amendment, it represents the U.S. healthcare system's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.^[1][2][3][4] Most of the act's provisions are still in effect.

The ACA's major provisions came into force in 2014. By 2016, the uninsured share of the population had roughly halved, with estimates ranging from 20 to 24 million additional people covered.^[5][6] The law also enacted a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. After it went into effect, increases in overall healthcare spending slowed, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans.^[7]

The increased coverage was due, roughly equally, to an expansion of Medicaid eligibility and to changes to individual insurance markets. Both received new spending, funded through a combination of new taxes and cuts to Medicare provider rates and Medicare Advantage. Several Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports said that overall these provisions reduced the budget deficit, that repealing ACA would increase the deficit,^[8][9] and that the law reduced income inequality by taxing primarily the top 1% to fund roughly $600 in benefits on average to families in the bottom 40% of the income distribution.^[10]

The act largely retained the existing structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market, but individual markets were radically overhauled.^[1][11] Insurers were made to accept all applicants without charging based on preexisting conditions or demographic status (except age). To combat the resultant adverse selection, the act mandated that individuals buy insurance (or pay a monetary penalty) and that insurers cover a list of "essential health benefits".

Before and after enactment the ACA faced strong political opposition, calls for repeal and legal challenges. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Supreme Court ruled that states could choose not to participate in the law's Medicaid expansion, but upheld the law as a whole.^[12] The federal health insurance exchange, HealthCare.gov, faced major technical problems at the beginning of its rollout in 2013. Polls initially found that a plurality of Americans opposed the act, although its individual provisions were generally more popular.^[13] By 2017, the law had majority support.^[14] The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 set the individual mandate penalty at $0 starting in 2019 due to its overall unpopularity and to reduce the federal budget deficit.^[15][16]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Oberlander2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Blumenthal2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CohenEtAl was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference ReutersSCOTUS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO_Subsidy2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Uberoi, Namrata; Finegold, Kenneth; Gee, Emily (March 2, 2016). "Health Insurance Coverage and the Affordable Care Act, 2010–2016" (PDF). Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. ASPE. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from the original on December 5, 2021. Retrieved December 7, 2016.
7. ^ "Employer Health Benefits 2015". Kaiser Family Foundation. Archived from the original on April 12, 2020. Retrieved November 19, 2016.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO50252 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO22077 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO_Dist14 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Gruber, Jonathan (2011). "The Impacts of the Affordable Care Act: How Reasonable Are the Projections?". National Tax Journal. 64 (3): 893–908. doi:10.17310/ntj.2011.3.06. hdl:1721.1/72971. S2CID 232213290. Archived from the original on June 20, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference NatLawReview2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Kirzinger, Ashley; Sugarman, Elise; Brodie, Mollyann (December 1, 2016). "Kaiser Health Tracking Poll: November 2016". Kaiser Family Foundation. Archived from the original on December 1, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
14. ^ "Gallup: ObamaCare has majority support for first time". The Hill. Archived from the original on December 1, 2017. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
15. ^ "H.R.1 – An Act to provide for reconciliation pursuant to titles II and V of the concurrent resolution on the budget for fiscal year 2018". Congress.gov. November 8, 2024.
16. ^ "Repealing the Individual Health Insurance Mandate: An Updated Estimate | Congressional Budget Office". www.cbo.gov. November 8, 2017. Retrieved November 8, 2024.

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23 March 2010 – The Affordable Care Act becomes law in the United States

Affordable Care Act

U.S. federal statute also known as Obamacare

"Obamacare" redirects here. For the song, see Obamacare (song).

The Affordable Care Act (ACA), formally known as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) and informally as Obamacare, is a landmark U.S. federal statute enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 amendment, it represents the U.S. healthcare system's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.^[1][2][3][4] Most of the act's provisions are still in effect.

The ACA's major provisions came into force in 2014. By 2016, the uninsured share of the population had roughly halved, with estimates ranging from 20 to 24 million additional people covered.^[5][6] The law also enacted a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. After it went into effect, increases in overall healthcare spending slowed, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans.^[7]

The increased coverage was due, roughly equally, to an expansion of Medicaid eligibility and to changes to individual insurance markets. Both received new spending, funded through a combination of new taxes and cuts to Medicare provider rates and Medicare Advantage. Several Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports said that overall these provisions reduced the budget deficit, that repealing ACA would increase the deficit,^[8][9] and that the law reduced income inequality by taxing primarily the top 1% to fund roughly $600 in benefits on average to families in the bottom 40% of the income distribution.^[10]

The act largely retained the existing structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market, but individual markets were radically overhauled.^[1][11] Insurers were made to accept all applicants without charging based on preexisting conditions or demographic status (except age). To combat the resultant adverse selection, the act mandated that individuals buy insurance (or pay a monetary penalty) and that insurers cover a list of "essential health benefits".

Before and after enactment the ACA faced strong political opposition, calls for repeal and legal challenges. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Supreme Court ruled that states could choose not to participate in the law's Medicaid expansion, but upheld the law as a whole.^[12] The federal health insurance exchange, HealthCare.gov, faced major technical problems at the beginning of its rollout in 2013. Polls initially found that a plurality of Americans opposed the act, although its individual provisions were generally more popular.^[13] By 2017, the law had majority support.^[14] The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 set the individual mandate penalty at $0 starting in 2019 due to its overall unpopularity and to reduce the federal budget deficit.^[15][16]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Oberlander2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Blumenthal2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CohenEtAl was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference ReutersSCOTUS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO_Subsidy2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Uberoi, Namrata; Finegold, Kenneth; Gee, Emily (March 2, 2016). "Health Insurance Coverage and the Affordable Care Act, 2010–2016" (PDF). Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. ASPE. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from the original on December 5, 2021. Retrieved December 7, 2016.
7. ^ "Employer Health Benefits 2015". Kaiser Family Foundation. Archived from the original on April 12, 2020. Retrieved November 19, 2016.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO50252 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO22077 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference CBO_Dist14 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Gruber, Jonathan (2011). "The Impacts of the Affordable Care Act: How Reasonable Are the Projections?". National Tax Journal. 64 (3): 893–908. doi:10.17310/ntj.2011.3.06. hdl:1721.1/72971. S2CID 232213290. Archived from the original on June 20, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference NatLawReview2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Kirzinger, Ashley; Sugarman, Elise; Brodie, Mollyann (December 1, 2016). "Kaiser Health Tracking Poll: November 2016". Kaiser Family Foundation. Archived from the original on December 1, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
14. ^ "Gallup: ObamaCare has majority support for first time". The Hill. Archived from the original on December 1, 2017. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
15. ^ "H.R.1 – An Act to provide for reconciliation pursuant to titles II and V of the concurrent resolution on the budget for fiscal year 2018". Congress.gov. November 8, 2024.
16. ^ "Repealing the Individual Health Insurance Mandate: An Updated Estimate | Congressional Budget Office". www.cbo.gov. November 8, 2017. Retrieved November 8, 2024.

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24 March 1882 – Robert Koch announces the discovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis

Robert Koch

German physician and bacteriologist (1843–1910)

For other people named Robert Koch, see Robert Koch (disambiguation).

Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (/kɒx/ KOKH;^[1][2] German: [ˈʁoːbɛʁt kɔx] ^ⓘ; 11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German physician and microbiologist. As the discoverer of the specific causative agents of deadly infectious diseases including tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax, he is regarded as one of the main founders of modern bacteriology. As such he is popularly nicknamed the father of microbiology (with Louis Pasteur^[3]), and as the father of medical bacteriology.^[4][5] His discovery of the anthrax bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) in 1876 is considered as the birth of modern bacteriology.^[6] Koch used his discoveries to establish that germs "could cause a specific disease"^[7] and directly provided proofs for the germ theory of diseases, therefore creating the scientific basis of public health,^[8] saving millions of lives.^[9] For his life's work Koch is seen as one of the founders of modern medicine.

While working as a private physician, Koch developed many innovative techniques in microbiology. He was the first to use the oil immersion lens, condenser, and microphotography in microscopy. His invention of the bacterial culture method using agar and glass plates (later developed as the Petri dish by his assistant Julius Richard Petri) made him the first to grow bacteria in the laboratory. In appreciation of his work, he was appointed to government advisor at the Imperial Health Office in 1880, promoted to a senior executive position (Geheimer Regierungsrat) in 1882, Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine at Berlin University in 1885, and the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (later renamed Robert Koch Institute after his death) in 1891.

The methods Koch used in bacteriology led to the establishment of a medical concept known as Koch's postulates, four generalized medical principles to ascertain the relationship of pathogens with specific diseases. The concept is still in use in most situations and influences subsequent epidemiological principles such as the Bradford Hill criteria.^[10] A major controversy followed when Koch discovered tuberculin as a medication for tuberculosis which was proven to be ineffective, but developed for diagnosis of tuberculosis after his death. For his research on tuberculosis, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905.^[11] The day he announced the discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, 24 March 1882, has been observed by the World Health Organization as "World Tuberculosis Day" every year since 1982.

1. ^ "Koch". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
2. ^ "Koch". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
3. ^ Fleming, Alexander (1952). "Freelance of Science". British Medical Journal. 2 (4778): 269. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.4778.269. PMC 2020971.
4. ^ Tan, S. Y.; Berman, E. (2008). "Robert Koch (1843-1910): father of microbiology and Nobel laureate". Singapore Medical Journal. 49 (11): 854–855. PMID 19037548.
5. ^ Gradmann, Christoph (2006). "Robert Koch and the white death: from tuberculosis to tuberculin". Microbes and Infection. 8 (1): 294–301. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2005.06.004. PMID 16126424.
6. ^ Lakhani, S. R. (1993). "Early clinical pathologists: Robert Koch (1843-1910)". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 46 (7): 596–598. doi:10.1136/jcp.46.7.596. PMC 501383. PMID 8157741.
7. ^ "A Theory of Germs". Science, Medicine, and Animals. National Academies Press (US). 2023-10-20.
8. ^ Lakhtakia, Ritu (2014). "The Legacy of Robert Koch: Surmise, search, substantiate". Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal. 14 (1): e37–41. doi:10.12816/0003334. PMC 3916274. PMID 24516751.
9. ^ "1843: Robert Koch: The Man who Saved Millions of Lives | History.info". 2019-12-10.
10. ^ Margo, Curtis E. (2011-04-11). "From Robert Koch to Bradford Hill: Chronic Infection and the Origins of Ocular Adnexal Cancers". Archives of Ophthalmology. 129 (4): 498–500. doi:10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.53. ISSN 0003-9950. PMID 21482875.
11. ^ Brock, Thomas. Robert Koch: A life in medicine and bacteriology. ASM Press: Washington DC, 1999. Print.

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25 March 1306 – Robert the Bruce becomes King of Scots (Scotland).

Robert the Bruce

King of Scotland from 1306 to 1329

"Robert Bruce" redirects here. For other uses, see Robert Bruce (disambiguation).

Robert I (11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329), popularly known as Robert the Bruce (Scottish Gaelic: Raibeart am Brusach), was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329.^[1] Robert led Scotland during the First War of Scottish Independence against England. He fought successfully during his reign to restore Scotland to an independent kingdom and is regarded in Scotland as a national hero.

Robert was a fourth-great-grandson of King David I, and his grandfather, Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale, was one of the claimants to the Scottish throne during the "Great Cause".^[1]

As Earl of Carrick, Robert the Bruce supported his family's claim to the Scottish throne and took part in William Wallace's campaign against Edward I of England. Appointed in 1298 as a Guardian of Scotland alongside his chief rival for the throne, John Comyn of Badenoch, and William Lamberton, Bishop of St Andrews, Robert resigned in 1300 because of his quarrels with Comyn and the apparently imminent restoration of John Balliol to the Scottish throne. After submitting to Edward I in 1302 and returning to "the king's peace", Robert inherited his family's claim to the Scottish throne upon his father's death.

Bruce's involvement in John Comyn's murder in February 1306 led to his excommunication by Pope Clement V (although he received absolution from Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow). Bruce moved quickly to seize the throne and was crowned king of Scots on 25 March 1306. Edward I's forces defeated Robert in the Battle of Methven, forcing him to flee into hiding, before re-emerging in 1307 to defeat an English army at Loudoun Hill and wage a highly successful guerrilla war against the English.

Robert I defeated his other opponents, destroying their strongholds and devastating their lands, and in 1309 held his first parliament. A series of military victories between 1310 and 1314 won him control of much of Scotland, and at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, Robert defeated a much larger English army under Edward II of England, confirming the re-establishment of an independent Scottish kingdom. The battle marked a significant turning point, with Robert's armies now free to launch devastating raids throughout northern England, while he also expanded the war against England by sending armies to invade Ireland, and appealed to the Irish to rise against Edward II's rule.

Despite Bannockburn and the capture of the final English stronghold at Berwick in 1318, Edward II refused to renounce his claim to the overlordship of Scotland. In 1320, the Scottish nobility submitted the Declaration of Arbroath to Pope John XXII, declaring Robert as their rightful monarch and asserting Scotland's status as an independent kingdom.

In 1324, the Pope recognised Robert I as king of an independent Scotland, and in 1326, the Franco-Scottish alliance was renewed in the Treaty of Corbeil. In 1327, the English deposed Edward II in favour of his son, Edward III, and peace was concluded between Scotland and England with the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton in 1328, by which Edward III renounced all claims to sovereignty over Scotland.

Robert I died in June 1329 and was succeeded by his son, David II. Robert's body is buried in Dunfermline Abbey, while his heart was interred in Melrose Abbey, and his internal organs were embalmed and placed in St Serf's Church, Dumbarton.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Cite error: The named reference Weir was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "St_Serf's_Church,_Dumbarton".

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26 March 1830 – The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, New York.

Book of Mormon

Sacred text of the Latter Day Saint movement

This article is about the religious text. For other uses, see Book of Mormon (disambiguation).

The Book of Mormon is a religious text of the Latter Day Saint movement, first published in 1830 by Joseph Smith as The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi.^[1][2]

The book is one of the earliest and most well-known unique writings of the Latter Day Saint movement. The denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement typically regard the text primarily as scripture (sometimes as one of four standard works) and secondarily as a record of God's dealings with ancient inhabitants of the Americas.^[3] The majority of Latter Day Saints believe the book to be a record of real-world history, with Latter Day Saint denominations viewing it variously as an inspired record of scripture to the linchpin or "keystone" of their religion.^[4][5] Independent archaeological, historical, and scientific communities have discovered little evidence to support the existence of the civilizations described therein.^[6] Characteristics of the language and content point toward a nineteenth-century origin of the Book of Mormon. Various academics and apologetic organizations connected to the Latter Day Saint movement nevertheless argue that the book is an authentic account of the pre-Columbian exchange world.

The Book of Mormon has a number of doctrinal discussions on subjects such as the fall of Adam and Eve,^[7] the nature of the Christian atonement,^[8] eschatology, agency, priesthood authority, redemption from physical and spiritual death,^[9] the nature and conduct of baptism, the age of accountability, the purpose and practice of communion, personalized revelation, economic justice, the anthropomorphic and personal nature of God, the nature of spirits and angels, and the organization of the latter day church. The pivotal event of the book is an appearance of Jesus Christ in the Americas shortly after his resurrection.^[10] Common teachings of the Latter Day Saint movement hold that the Book of Mormon fulfills numerous biblical prophecies by ending a global apostasy and signaling a restoration of Christian gospel.

The Book of Mormon is divided into smaller books — which are usually titled after individuals named as primary authors — and in most versions, is divided into chapters and verses.^[11] Its English text imitates the style of the King James Version of the Bible.^[11] The Book of Mormon has been fully or partially translated into at least 112 languages.^[12]

1. ^ The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon, Upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi (1830 edition). E. B. Grandin. 1830.
2. ^ Hardy 2010, p. 3.
3. ^ Hardy 2010, pp. xi–xiii, 6.
4. ^ Archives, Church News (17 August 2013). "'Keystone of our religion'". Church News. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
5. ^ "The Book of Mormon is the Keystone of Our Religion". Preach My Gospel. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
6. ^ Southerton 2004, p. xv. "Anthropologists and archaeologists, including some Mormons and former Mormons, have discovered little to support the existence of [Book of Mormon] civilizations. Over a period of 150 years, as scholars have seriously studied Native American cultures and prehistory, evidence of a Christian civilization in the Americas has eluded the specialists... These [Mesoamerican] cultures lack any trace of Hebrew or Egyptian writing, metallurgy, or the Old World domesticated animals and plants described in the Book of Mormon."
7. ^ E.g. 2 Nephi 2
8. ^ E.g. 2 Nephi 9
9. ^ E.g. Alma 12
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hardy-2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ ^{a b} Hardy 2010, pp. 5–6.
12. ^ Translations of the Book of Mormon at LDS365.com

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27 March 1915 – Typhoid Mary, the first healthy carrier of disease ever identified in the United States, is put in quarantine for the second time, where she would remain for the rest of her life.

Mary Mallon

Irish cook who was a carrier of typhoid fever in New York

"Typhoid Mary" redirects here. For the Marvel Comics character, see Typhoid Mary (character). For the book, see Typhoid Mary: An Urban Historical.

Not to be confused with Mary Mallen.

Mary Mallon (September 23, 1869 – November 11, 1938), commonly known as Typhoid Mary, was an Irish-born American cook who is believed to have infected between 51 and 122 people with typhoid fever. The infections caused three confirmed deaths, with unconfirmed estimates of as many as 50. She was the first person in the United States identified as an asymptomatic carrier of the pathogenic bacterium Salmonella typhi.^[1][2] She was forcibly quarantined twice by authorities, the second time for the remainder of her life because she persisted in working as a cook and thereby exposed others to the disease. Mallon died after a total of nearly 30 years quarantined.^[3][4] Her popular nickname has since become a term for persons who spread disease or other misfortune.

1. ^ Marineli et al. 2013.
2. ^ "'Typhoid Mary' Dies Of A Stroke At 68. Carrier of Disease, Blamed for 51 Cases and 3 Deaths, but Immune". The New York Times. November 12, 1938. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved February 28, 2010.
3. ^ The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life, ISBN 0674357086
4. ^ Typhoid Mary: An Urban Historical, ISBN 160819518X

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28 March 1854 – Crimean War: France and Britain declare war on Russia.

Crimean War

Conflict on the Crimean Peninsula from 1853 to 1856

For other uses, see Crimean War (disambiguation).

The Crimean War^[d] was fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont from October 1853 to February 1856.^[9] Geopolitical causes of the war included the "Eastern question" (the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the "sick man of Europe"), expansion of Imperial Russia in the preceding Russo-Turkish wars, and the British and French preference to preserve the Ottoman Empire to maintain the balance of power in the Concert of Europe.

The flashpoint was a dispute between France and Russia over the rights of Catholic and Orthodox minorities in Palestine.^[10] After the Sublime Porte refused Tsar Nicholas I's demand that the Empire's Orthodox subjects were to be placed under his protection, Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities in July 1853. The Ottomans declared war on Russia in October^[11] and halted the Russian advance at Silistria. Fearing the growth of Russian influence and compelled by public outrage over the annihilation of the Ottoman squadron at Sinop, Britain and France joined the war on the Ottoman side in March 1854.^[9]

In September 1854, after extended preparations, allied forces landed in Crimea in an attempt to capture Russia's main naval base in the Black Sea, Sevastopol. They scored an early victory at the Battle of the Alma. The Russians counterattacked in late October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, and a second counterattack at Inkerman ended in a stalemate. The front settled into the eleven-month-long Siege of Sevastopol, involving brutal conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller military actions took place in the Caucasus (1853–1855), the White Sea (July–August 1854) and the North Pacific (1854–1855). The Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont entered on the allies' side in 1855.

Sevastopol ultimately fell following a renewed French assault on the Malakoff redoubt in September 1855. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion by the West if the war continued, Russia sued for peace in March 1856. Due to the conflict's domestic unpopularity, France and Britain welcomed the development. The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, ended the war. It forbade Russia to base warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent. Christians in the Ottoman Empire gained a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute.^[12]

The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts in which military forces used modern technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways and telegraphs.^[13] It was also one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and in photographs. The war quickly symbolized logistical, medical and tactical failures and mismanagement. The reaction in Britain led to a demand for the professionalization of medicine, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for pioneering modern nursing while she treated the wounded.

The Crimean War also marked a turning point for the Russian Empire. It weakened the Imperial Russian Army, drained the treasury and undermined its influence in Europe. The humiliating defeat forced Russia's educated elites to identify the country's fundamental problems. It became a catalyst for reforms of Russia's social institutions, including the emancipation reform of 1861 which abolished serfdom in Russia, and overhauls in the justice system, local self-government, education and military service.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Badem 2010, p. 280.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Clodfelter 2017, p. 180.
3. ^ Brooks, E. Willis (1984). "Reform in the Russian Army, 1856-1861". Slavic Review. 43 (1): 63–82. doi:10.2307/2498735. JSTOR 2498735.
4. ^ ^{a b} Tashlykov, Sergei (2023). Крымская война [The Crimean War]. Great Russian Encyclopedia (in Russian).
5. ^ Figes 2010, p. 489.
6. ^ Mara Kozelsky, "The Crimean War, 1853–56." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 13.4 (2012): 903–917 online.
7. ^ Kozlovsky, N. (1914). Vojna s Japoniey 1904-1905 (in Russian). Main Military Medical Directorate. pp. 247–248. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025.
8. ^ Dumas & Vedel-Petersen 1923, p. 42.
9. ^ ^{a b} "Crimean War". Encyclopedia Britannica. 27 September 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
10. ^ "The Crimean War". historytoday.com. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
11. ^ Kerr, Paul (2000). The Crimean War. Mcmillan. p. 17. ISBN 978-0752272481.
12. ^ Figes 2010, p. 415.
13. ^ Royle 2000, Preface.

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29 March 1961 – The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, allowing residents of Washington, D.C., to vote in presidential elections.

Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution

1961 amendment granting presidential electors to the District of Columbia

The Twenty-third Amendment (Amendment XXIII) to the United States Constitution extends the right to participate in presidential elections to the District of Columbia. The amendment grants to the district electors in the Electoral College, as though it were a state, though the district can never have more electors than the least-populous state. How the electors are appointed is to be determined by Congress. The Twenty-third Amendment was proposed by the 86th Congress on June 16, 1960; it was ratified by the requisite number of states on March 29, 1961.

The Constitution provides that each state receives presidential electors equal to the combined number of seats it has in the Senate and the House of Representatives. As the District of Columbia is not a state, it was not entitled to any electors before the adoption of the Twenty-third Amendment. As early as 1888, some journalists and members of Congress favored a constitutional amendment to grant the district electoral votes. Still, such an amendment did not win widespread support until the rise of the civil rights movement in the 1950s. The amendment was not seen as a partisan measure; ratification of the amendment was endorsed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and both major party candidates in the 1960 presidential election. The amendment's ratification made the district the only entity other than the states to have any representation in the Electoral College.

The first presidential election in which the District of Columbia participated was the election of 1964. Starting with that election, the District of Columbia has consistently had three members in the Electoral College, this being the constitutionally implied minimum number it is entitled to; notwithstanding the constitutionally entrenched limitation on its number of electors, the District's population has never reached the threshold where it otherwise would have been entitled to more than three. Since the passage of the Twenty-third Amendment, all but one of the district's electoral votes have been cast for the Democratic Party's presidential candidates.^[1] The Twenty-third Amendment did not grant the district voting rights in Congress, nor did it give the district the right to participate in the process that allows the Constitution to be amended. A constitutional amendment to do this was proposed by Congress in 1978, but not enough states ratified it for it to be adopted. Many citizens of the district favor statehood or further constitutional amendments to address these issues.

1. ^ The lone exception was a faithless elector in the 2000 election who refused to cast a vote.

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30 March 1842 – Ether anesthesia is used for the first time, in an operation by the American surgeon Dr. Crawford Long.

Diethyl ether

Organic chemical compound

"^O^" redirects here. For the emoticon, see List of emoticons.

Chemical compound

Diethyl ether, or simply ether, is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CH₃CH₂)₂O, sometimes abbreviated as Et₂O.^[a] It is a colourless, highly volatile, sweet-smelling ("ethereal odour"), extremely flammable liquid. It belongs to the ether class of organic compounds. It is a common solvent and was formerly used as a general anesthetic.^[8]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0277". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
2. ^ Merck Index, 10th ed., Martha Windholz, editor, Merck & Co., Inc, Rahway, NJ, 1983, p. 551
3. ^ "Diethyl ether_msds".
4. ^ "Diethyl ether". ChemSpider. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
5. ^ Carl L. Yaws, Chemical Properties Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999, p. 567
6. ^ ^{a b} "Ethyl ether". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
7. ^ ^{a b} "Ethyl Ether MSDS". J.T. Baker. Archived from the original on 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
8. ^ Sakuth, Michael; Mensing, Thomas; Schuler, Joachim; Heitmann, Wilhelm; Strehlke, Günther; Mayer, Dieter (2010). "Ethers, Aliphatic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_023.pub2. ISBN 978-3-527-30385-4.

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31 March 1889 – The Eiffel Tower is officially opened.

Eiffel Tower

Tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France

This article is about the landmark in Paris, France. For other uses, see Eiffel Tower (disambiguation).

"300-metre tower" and "Tour Eiffel" redirect here. For other tall towers, see List of tallest towers. For other uses, see Tour Eiffel (disambiguation).

The Eiffel Tower (/ˈaɪfəl/ ^ⓘ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl] ^ⓘ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.

Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centrepiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.^[5] The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.^[6] The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:^[7] 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.^[8]

The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall,^[9] about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.

The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground—the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600-step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's personal use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.

1. ^ ^{a b} Bachman, Leonard R. (2019). Constructing the Architect: An Introduction to Design, Research, Planning, and Education. Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 9781351665421.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Eiffel Tower". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
3. ^ "Intermediate floor of the Eiffel tower".
4. ^ "Eiffel Tower". Emporis. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016.
5. ^ SETE. "The Eiffel Tower at a glance". Official Eiffel Tower website. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
6. ^ Tourism Statistics, "Visit Paris Region" site of the Paris Ile de France Visitors Bureau, retrieved 22 March 2022.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Clayson, S. Hollis (26 February 2020), "Eiffel Tower", Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780190922467-0014, ISBN 978-0-19-092246-7, retrieved 14 November 2021
9. ^ "Eiffel Tower grows six metres after new antenna attached". Reuters. 15 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.

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1 April 1948 – Faroe Islands gain autonomy from Denmark.

Faroe Islands

Autonomous territory of Denmark

Not to be confused with Faroe; Fårö; Faro, Portugal; Fair Isle; Farø; or Pharaoh.

Autonomous territory in the Kingdom of Denmark

The Faroe Islands^[b] (/ˈfɛəroʊ/ FAIR-oh) (alt. the Faroes) are an archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark. Located between Iceland, Norway, and the United Kingdom, the islands have a population of 54,676 as of August 2023^[update] and a land area of 1,393 km².^[10] The official language is Faroese, which is partially mutually intelligible with Icelandic. The terrain is rugged and sparse, dominated by fjords and cliffs with sparse vegetation and few trees. As a result of its proximity to the Arctic Circle, the islands experience perpetual civil twilight during summer nights and very short winter days; nevertheless, they experience a subpolar oceanic climate and mild temperatures year-round due to the Gulf Stream.^[11] The capital, Tórshavn, receives the fewest recorded hours of sunshine of any city in the world at only 840 per year.^[12]

Færeyinga Saga and the writings of Dicuil place initial Norse settlement in the early 9th century, with Grímur Kamban recorded as the first permanent settler.^[13][14] As with the subsequent Settlement of Iceland, the islands were mainly settled by Norwegians and Norse-Gaels who also brought thralls (i.e. slaves or serfs) of Gaelic origin. Initially governed as an independent commonwealth under the Løgting, the islands came under Norwegian rule in the early 11th century after the introduction of Christianity by Sigmundur Brestisson. The Faroe Islands followed Norway's integration into the Kalmar Union in 1397 and came under de facto Danish rule following that union's dissolution in 1523. Following the introduction of Lutheranism in 1538, the Faroese language was banned in public institutions and disappeared from writing for more than three centuries. The islands were formally ceded to Denmark in 1814 by the Treaty of Kiel along with Greenland and Iceland, and the Løgting was subsequently replaced by a Danish judiciary.

Following the re-establishment of the Løgting and an official Faroese orthography, the Faroese language conflict saw Danish being gradually displaced by Faroese as the language of the church, public education, and law in the first half of the 20th century. The islands were occupied by the British during the Second World War, who refrained from governing Faroese internal affairs: inspired by this period of relative self-government and the declaration of Iceland as a republic in 1944, the islands held a referendum in 1946 that resulted in a narrow majority for independence. The results were annulled by Christian X, and subsequent negotiations led to the Faroe Islands being granted home rule in 1948.^[15]

While remaining part of the Kingdom of Denmark to this day, the Faroe Islands have extensive autonomy and control most areas apart from military defence, policing, justice and currency, with partial control over foreign affairs.^[16] Because the Faroe Islands are not part of the same customs area as Denmark, they have an independent trade policy and can establish their own trade agreements with other states. The islands have an extensive bilateral free trade agreement with Iceland, known as the Hoyvík Agreement. In certain sports, the Faroe Islands field their own national teams. In the Nordic Council and Council of Europe, they are represented as part of the Danish delegation.

The islands' fishing industry accounts for around 90% of their exports, with tourism becoming increasingly prominent since the 2010s. They did not become a part of the European Economic Community in 1973, instead keeping autonomy over their own fishing waters; as a result, the Faroe Islands are not a part of the European Union today. The Løgting, albeit suspended between 1816 and 1852, holds a claim as one of the oldest continuously running parliaments in the world.

1. ^ "Den færøske selvstyreordning, about the Overtagelsesloven (Takeover Act)". Stm.dk. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
2. ^ "The Language of the Faroe Islands". Visit Faroe Islands. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
3. ^ "The Faroese Language". faroeislands.fo. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
4. ^ "Faroe Islands". The CIA World Factbook. 6 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
5. ^ "Heim | Hagstova Føroya". hagstova.fo.
6. ^ "Faroe Islands | Data". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
7. ^ "PX-Web – Vel talvu". statbank.hagstova.fo.
8. ^ "Filling Gaps in the Human Development Index" (PDF). United Nations ESCAP. February 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2011.
9. ^ "[1]." visitfaroeislands.com. Retrieved on 26 July 2023. "Before you arrive in the Faroe Islands."
10. ^ "Population | Statistics Faroe Islands". hagstova.fo. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
11. ^ "The unpredictable Faroe Islands weather". Guide to Faroe Islands. 19 December 2018.
12. ^ TORSHAVN Climate Normals 1961–1990. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
13. ^ "Viking history : 825 – Grímur Kamban arrived at Faroe islands". Viking history. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
14. ^ Dahl, Sverri (1970). "The Norse Settlement Of The Faroe Islands". Medieval Archaeology. 14: 60–62. doi:10.5284/1071511 – via Archaeology Data Service.
15. ^ "The Faroe Islands". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark. Retrieved 28 December 2020. Home Rule was established in 1948 [...]
16. ^ "Lov om de færøske myndigheders overtagelse af sager og sagsområder (Also called: Overtagelsesloven)". Retsinformation.dk (in Danish).

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2 April 1800 – Ludwig van Beethoven leads the premiere of his First Symphony in Vienna.

Ludwig van Beethoven

German composer (1770–1827)

"Beethoven" redirects here. For other uses, see Beethoven (disambiguation) and Ludwig van Beethoven (disambiguation).

Ludwig van Beethoven^{[n 1]} (baptised 17 December 1770 – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. He is one of the most revered figures in the history of Western music; his works rank among the most performed of the classical music repertoire and span the transition from the Classical period to the Romantic era in classical music. His early period, during which he forged his craft, is typically considered to have lasted until 1802. From 1802 to around 1812, his middle period showed an individual development from the styles of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and is sometimes characterised as heroic. During this time, Beethoven began to grow increasingly deaf. In his late period, from 1812 to 1827, he extended his innovations in musical form and expression.

Born in Bonn, Beethoven displayed his musical talent at a young age. He was initially taught intensively by his father, Johann van Beethoven, and later by Christian Gottlob Neefe. Under Neefe's tutelage in 1783, he published his first work, a set of keyboard variations. He found relief from a dysfunctional home life with the family of Helene von Breuning, whose children he loved, befriended, and taught piano. At age 21, he moved to Vienna, which subsequently became his base, and studied composition with Haydn. Beethoven then gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist, and was soon patronised by Karl Alois, Prince Lichnowsky for compositions, which resulted in his three Opus 1 piano trios (the earliest works to which he accorded an opus number) in 1795.

Beethoven's first major orchestral work, the First Symphony, premiered in 1800, and his first set of string quartets was published in 1801. Despite his advancing deafness during this period, he continued to conduct, premiering his Third and Fifth Symphonies in 1804 and 1808, respectively. His Violin Concerto appeared in 1806. His last piano concerto (No. 5, Op. 73, known as the Emperor), dedicated to his frequent patron Archduke Rudolf of Austria, premiered in 1811, without Beethoven as soloist. He was almost completely deaf by 1815, and he then gave up performing and appearing in public. He described his problems with health and his unfulfilled personal life in two letters, his Heiligenstadt Testament (1802) to his brothers and his unsent love letter to an unknown "Immortal Beloved" (1812).

After 1810, increasingly less socially involved as his hearing loss worsened, Beethoven composed many of his most admired works, including later symphonies, mature chamber music and the late piano sonatas. His only opera, Fidelio, first performed in 1805, was revised to its final version in 1814. He composed the Missa solemnis between 1819 and 1823 and his final Symphony, No. 9, the first major example of a choral symphony, between 1822 and 1824. Written in his last years, his late string quartets, including the Grosse Fuge, of 1825–1826 are among his final achievements. After several months of illness, which left him bedridden, he died on 26 March 1827 at the age of 56.
Cite error: There are <ref group=n> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=n}} template (see the help page).

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3 April 2010 – Apple Inc. released the first generation iPad, a tablet computer.

IPad (1st generation)

2010 Apple tablet computer

This article is about the first-generation iPad. For the product line, see iPad.

The first-generation iPad (/ˈaɪpæd/; EYE-pad) (retrospectively referred to unofficially as the iPad 1 or original iPad) is a tablet computer designed and marketed by Apple Inc. as the first device in the iPad lineup of tablet computers. It features an Apple A4 SoC, a 9.7 in (250 mm) touchscreen display,^[7] and, on certain variants, the capability of accessing cellular networks. Using the iOS operating system, the iPad can play music, send and receive emails and browse the web. Other functions, which include the ability to play games and access references, GPS navigation software and social network services, can be enabled by downloading apps.

The device was announced and unveiled on January 27, 2010, by Steve Jobs, Apple's CEO, at an Apple press event. On April 3, 2010, the Wi-Fi variant of the device was released in the United States, followed by the release of the "Wi-Fi + 3G" variant on April 30. On May 28, 2010, it was released in Australia, Canada, France, Japan, Italy, Germany, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

The device received positive reviews from various technology blogs and publications. Reviewers praised the device for its wide range of capabilities and labeled it as a competitor to laptops and netbooks. Some aspects were criticized, including the closed nature of the operating system and the lack of support for the Adobe Flash multimedia format. During the first 80 days, 3 million iPads were sold. By the launch of the iPad 2, Apple had sold more than 15 million iPads.

On March 2, 2011, the first-generation iPad was discontinued following Apple's announcement of the iPad 2. Remaining stock of the first iPad were temporarily available from Apple at reduced price.^[8][9]

1. ^ Groathus, Michael (November 9, 2010). "iPad launched in Russia today with very limited stock". Yahoo Money. Michael Groathus. Retrieved December 18, 2023.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Cite error: The named reference AppleIPadSpecs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference A4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Miroslav Djuric 2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Djuric, Miroslav (April 3, 2010). "Apple A4 Teardown". iFixit. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
6. ^ "iPad Wi-Fi Teardown". iFixit. April 3, 2010. Archived from the original on December 22, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2014.
7. ^ "Everything You Need to Know About the First Generation iPad". Lifewire. Archived from the original on December 2, 2020. Retrieved May 19, 2020.
8. ^ Barnett, Emma (March 2, 2011). "Apple iPad 2: Steve Jobs makes surprise launch appearance". The Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on December 2, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2018.
9. ^ "First-Generation iPad Prices Reduced by $100". Archived from the original on September 27, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2018.

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4 April 1949 – Cold War: Twelve nations sign the North Atlantic Treaty creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

NATO

Intergovernmental military alliance

"OTAN" redirects here. For other uses, see NATO (disambiguation) and OTAN (disambiguation).

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO /ˈneɪtoʊ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental transnational military alliance of 32 member states—30 European and 2 North American. Established in the aftermath of World War II, the organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949.^[5][6] NATO is a collective security system: its independent member states agree to defend each other against attacks by third parties. During the Cold War, NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the Soviet Union. The alliance remained in place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, and has been involved in military operations in the Balkans, the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa. The organization's motto is animus in consulendo liber (Latin for 'a mind unfettered in deliberation').^[7] The organization's strategic concepts include deterrence.^[8]

NATO's main headquarters are located in Brussels, Belgium, while NATO's military headquarters are near Mons, Belgium. The alliance has increased its NATO Response Force deployments in Eastern Europe,^[9] and the combined militaries of all NATO members include around 3.5 million soldiers and personnel.^[10] All member states together cover an area of 25.07 million km² (9.68 million sq mi) with a population of about 973 million people.^[11] Their combined military spending as of 2022^[update] constituted around 55 percent of the global nominal total.^[12] Moreover, members have agreed to reach or maintain the target defence spending of at least two percent of their GDP by 2024.^[13][14]

NATO formed with twelve founding members and has added new members ten times, most recently when Sweden joined the alliance on 7 March 2024.^[15] In addition, NATO recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, and Ukraine as aspiring members.^[5] Enlargement has led to tensions with non-member Russia, one of the 18 additional countries participating in NATO's Partnership for Peace programme. Another 38 countries are involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes with NATO.^[16]

1. ^ "Final Communiqué". NATO. 17 September 1949. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 2 March 2024. English and French shall be the official languages for the entire North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
2. ^ "The North Atlantic Treaty". NATO. 4 April 1949. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2024. This Treaty, of which the English and French texts are equally authentic ...
3. ^ "Mark Rutte takes office as NATO Secretary General". NATO. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
4. ^ "Defence Expenditure of NATO Countries (2014–2024)" (PDF). NATO.
5. ^ ^{a b} "What is NATO?". NATO. n.d. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
6. ^ Cook, Lorne (25 May 2017). "NATO, the world's biggest military alliance, explained". Military Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
7. ^ "Animus in consulendo liber". NATO. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
8. ^ Szenes, Zoltan (2023). "Reinforcing deterrence: assessing NATO's 2022 Strategic Concept". Defense & Security Analysis. 39 (4): 539–560. doi:10.1080/14751798.2023.2270230.
9. ^ "NATO to accelerate deployment of up to 300,000 soldiers on eastern border". Ukrainska Pravda. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
10. ^ Batchelor, Tom (9 March 2022). "Where are Nato troops stationed and how many are deployed across Europe?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
11. ^ "Members of the NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization". WorldData.info. Archived from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2025.
12. ^ "World military expenditure reaches new record high as European spending surges". SIPRI. 24 April 2023. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
13. ^ "The Wales Declaration on the Transatlantic Bond". NATO. Archived from the original on 10 June 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
14. ^ Erlanger, Steven (26 March 2014). "Europe Begins to Rethink Cuts to Military Spending". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014. Last year, only a handful of NATO countries met the target, according to NATO figures, including the United States, at 4.1 percent, and Britain, at 2.4 percent.
15. ^ "Notification Reference No. 2024-008" (PDF). United States Department of State. 7 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
16. ^ "Topic: NATO's partnerships". NATO. 6 August 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2025.

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5 April 1621 – The Mayflower sets sail from Plymouth, Massachusetts on a return trip to England.

Mayflower

17th-century ship of American colonists

For other ships, see List of ships named Mayflower. For other uses, see Mayflower (disambiguation).

Mayflower was an English sailing ship that transported a group of English families, known today as the Pilgrims, from England to the New World in 1620. After 10 weeks at sea, Mayflower, with 102 passengers and a crew of about 30, reached what is today the United States, dropping anchor near the tip of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, on November 21 [O.S. November 11], 1620.

Differing from their contemporary Puritans (who sought to reform and purify the Church of England), the Pilgrims chose to separate themselves from the Church of England, which forced them to pray in private. They believed that its resistance to reform and Roman Catholic past left it beyond redemption. Starting in 1608, a group of English families left England for the Netherlands, where they could worship freely. By 1620, the community determined to cross the Atlantic for America, which they considered a "new Promised Land", where they would establish Plymouth Colony.^[1]: 44

The Pilgrims had originally hoped to reach America by early October using two ships, but delays and complications meant they could use only one, Mayflower. Arriving in November, they had to survive unprepared through a harsh winter. As a result, only half of the original Pilgrims survived the first winter at Plymouth. If not for the help of local indigenous peoples to teach them food gathering and other survival skills, all of the colonists might have perished. The following year, those 53 who survived^[2] celebrated the colony's first fall harvest along with 90 Wampanoag Native American people,^[3] an occasion declared in centuries later the first American Thanksgiving.^[4] Before disembarking from Mayflower, the Pilgrims wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, an agreement that established a rudimentary government, in which each member would contribute to the safety and welfare of the planned settlement. As one of the earliest colonial vessels, the ship has become a cultural icon in the history of the United States.^[5]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fraser was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Primary Sources for 'The First Thanksgiving' at Plymouth" (PDF). Pilgrim Hall Museum. Retrieved November 26, 2009. The 53 Pilgrims at the First Thanksgiving
3. ^ Winslow, Edward (1622), Mourt's Relation (PDF), p. 133, retrieved November 20, 2013, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and amongst the rest their greatest king Massasoyt, with some ninetie men, whom for three dayes we entertained and feasted
4. ^ Weinstein, Allen, and Rubel, David. The Story of America, Agincourt Press Production, (2002) ISBN 0-7894-8903-1 pp. 60–61
5. ^ Bevan, Richard. "The Mayflower and the Birth of America", Sky History. AETN UK. Accessed on 23 November 2023.

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6 April 1917 – World War I: The United States declares war on Germany.

United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)

Declaration of war in World War I

The United States declared war on the German Empire on April 6, 1917. President Woodrow Wilson asked a special joint session of the United States Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917, which passed in the Senate on the same day and then in the House of Representatives four days later on April 6. Wilson signed it into law the same day, making the United States officially involved in the First World War.

Despite heavy opposition to the war initially, several incidents resulted in the United States public largely turning against Germany and its allies by 1917. In his speech to the Congress, Wilson stated that the war would make the world ''safe for democracy'' and cited the German Empire's decision to resume unrestricted submarine warfare as an attack on not only Europe, but the United States as well.

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7 April 1906 – Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples.

Mount Vesuvius

Active stratovolcano in the Gulf of Naples, Italy

"Vesuvius" redirects here. For other uses, see Vesuvius (disambiguation).

Mount Vesuvius (/vɪˈsuːviəs/ viss-OO-vee-əs)^[a] is a somma–stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera, resulting from the collapse of an earlier, much higher structure.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Stabiae and other settlements. The eruption ejected a cloud of stones, ash and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), erupting molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6×10⁵ cubic metres (7.8×10⁵ cu yd) per second.^[6] More than 1,000 people are thought to have died in the eruption, though the exact toll is unknown. The only surviving witness account consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus.^[7]

Vesuvius has erupted many times since. It is the only volcano on Europe's mainland to have erupted in the last hundred years. It is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because 3,000,000 people live near enough to be affected by an eruption, with at least 600,000 in the danger zone. This is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world. Eruptions tend to be violent and explosive; these are known as Plinian eruptions.^[8]

1. ^ "Italian Peninsula & Islands - World Ribus". 15 January 2025.
2. ^ "Vesuvio nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 7 February 2021.
3. ^ Grasso, Alfonso, ed. (2007). "Il Vesuvio" [Vesuvius]. ilportaledelsud.org (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
4. ^ Castiglioni, Luigi; Mariotti, Scevola (2007). Vocabolario della lingua latina : IL : latino-italiano, italiano-latino / Luigi Castiglioni, Scevola Mariotti; redatto con la collaborazione di Arturo Brambilla e Gaspare Campagna (in Italian) (4th ed.). Loescher. p. 1505. ISBN 978-8820166601.
5. ^ "Vesuvio o Vesevius nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
6. ^ Woods, Andrew W. (2013). "Sustained explosive activity: volcanic eruption columns and hawaiian fountains". In Fagents, Sarah A.; Gregg, Tracy K. P.; Lopes, Rosaly M. C. (eds.). Modeling Volcanic Processes: The Physics and Mathematics of Volcanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0521895439.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference epistularum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ McGuire, Bill (16 October 2003). "In the shadow of the volcano". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2010.

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8 April 2010 – U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev sign the New START Treaty

New START

2010 US–Russian nuclear arms reduction treaty

New START (Russian abbrev.: СНВ-III, SNV-III from сокращение стратегических наступательных вооружений "reduction of strategic offensive arms") is a nuclear arms reduction treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation with the formal name of Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. It was signed on 8 April 2010 in Prague,^[3][4] and after ratification^[5][6] it entered into force on 5 February 2011.^[1]

New START replaced the Treaty of Moscow (SORT), which was to expire in December 2012. It follows the START I treaty, which expired in December 2009; the proposed START II treaty which never entered into force; and the START III treaty, for which negotiations were never concluded.

The treaty calls for halving the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers. A new inspection and verification regime will be established, replacing the SORT mechanism. It does not limit the number of operationally inactive nuclear warheads that can be stockpiled, a number in the high thousands.^[7]

On 21 February 2023, Russia suspended its participation in New START.^[8] However, it did not withdraw from the treaty, and clarified that it would continue to abide by the numerical limits in the treaty.^[9][10][11]

1. ^ ^{a b} "U.S.-Russia nuclear arms treaty finalized". USA Today. Associated Press. 5 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
2. ^ "Putin Says Russia to Suspend New START Nuke Pact Participation". Bloomberg News. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
3. ^ Jesse Lee (26 March 2010). "President Obama Announces the New START Treaty, The White House" (Press release). White House. Retrieved 9 April 2010 – via National Archives.
4. ^ "US and Russian leaders hail nuclear arms treaty". BBC News. 8 April 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
5. ^ Fred Weir (26 January 2011). "With Russian ratification of New START, what's next for US-Russia relations?". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
6. ^ "Medvedev signs law ratifying Russia–U.S. arms pact". Reuters. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 August 2012.
7. ^ Baker, Peter (26 March 2010). "Twists and Turns on Way to Arms Pact With Russia". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
8. ^ "Putin Says Moscow Suspending Participation in New START Nuclear Treaty". Barrons. Agence France Presse. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
9. ^ Aman Eddine, Razy (20 December 2023). "Searching for Strategic Arms Control Obligations Amidst the Suspension of the New START Treaty." In Expanding Perspectives on Nuclear Disarmament (PDF). Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University. pp. 52–68.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
10. ^ "Putin defends Ukraine invasion, warns West in address". NHK World. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
11. ^ "The last US-Russia arms control treaty is in big trouble", Jen Kirby, Vox, 25 February 2023.

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8 April 2010 – U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev sign the New START Treaty

New START

2010 US–Russian nuclear arms reduction treaty

New START (Russian abbrev.: СНВ-III, SNV-III from сокращение стратегических наступательных вооружений "reduction of strategic offensive arms") is a nuclear arms reduction treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation with the formal name of Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. It was signed on 8 April 2010 in Prague,^[3][4] and after ratification^[5][6] it entered into force on 5 February 2011.^[1]

New START replaced the Treaty of Moscow (SORT), which was to expire in December 2012. It follows the START I treaty, which expired in December 2009; the proposed START II treaty which never entered into force; and the START III treaty, for which negotiations were never concluded.

The treaty calls for halving the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers. A new inspection and verification regime will be established, replacing the SORT mechanism. It does not limit the number of operationally inactive nuclear warheads that can be stockpiled, a number in the high thousands.^[7]

On 21 February 2023, Russia suspended its participation in New START.^[8] However, it did not withdraw from the treaty, and clarified that it would continue to abide by the numerical limits in the treaty.^[9][10][11]

1. ^ ^{a b} "U.S.-Russia nuclear arms treaty finalized". USA Today. Associated Press. 5 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
2. ^ "Putin Says Russia to Suspend New START Nuke Pact Participation". Bloomberg News. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
3. ^ Jesse Lee (26 March 2010). "President Obama Announces the New START Treaty, The White House" (Press release). White House. Retrieved 9 April 2010 – via National Archives.
4. ^ "US and Russian leaders hail nuclear arms treaty". BBC News. 8 April 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
5. ^ Fred Weir (26 January 2011). "With Russian ratification of New START, what's next for US-Russia relations?". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
6. ^ "Medvedev signs law ratifying Russia–U.S. arms pact". Reuters. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 August 2012.
7. ^ Baker, Peter (26 March 2010). "Twists and Turns on Way to Arms Pact With Russia". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
8. ^ "Putin Says Moscow Suspending Participation in New START Nuclear Treaty". Barrons. Agence France Presse. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
9. ^ Aman Eddine, Razy (20 December 2023). "Searching for Strategic Arms Control Obligations Amidst the Suspension of the New START Treaty." In Expanding Perspectives on Nuclear Disarmament (PDF). Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University. pp. 52–68.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
10. ^ "Putin defends Ukraine invasion, warns West in address". NHK World. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
11. ^ "The last US-Russia arms control treaty is in big trouble", Jen Kirby, Vox, 25 February 2023.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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8 April 2010 – U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev sign the New START Treaty

New START

2010 US–Russian nuclear arms reduction treaty

New START (Russian abbrev.: СНВ-III, SNV-III from сокращение стратегических наступательных вооружений "reduction of strategic offensive arms") is a nuclear arms reduction treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation with the formal name of Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. It was signed on 8 April 2010 in Prague,^[3][4] and after ratification^[5][6] it entered into force on 5 February 2011.^[1]

New START replaced the Treaty of Moscow (SORT), which was to expire in December 2012. It follows the START I treaty, which expired in December 2009; the proposed START II treaty which never entered into force; and the START III treaty, for which negotiations were never concluded.

The treaty calls for halving the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers. A new inspection and verification regime will be established, replacing the SORT mechanism. It does not limit the number of operationally inactive nuclear warheads that can be stockpiled, a number in the high thousands.^[7]

On 21 February 2023, Russia suspended its participation in New START.^[8] However, it did not withdraw from the treaty, and clarified that it would continue to abide by the numerical limits in the treaty.^[9][10][11]

1. ^ ^{a b} "U.S.-Russia nuclear arms treaty finalized". USA Today. Associated Press. 5 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
2. ^ "Putin Says Russia to Suspend New START Nuke Pact Participation". Bloomberg News. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
3. ^ Jesse Lee (26 March 2010). "President Obama Announces the New START Treaty, The White House" (Press release). White House. Retrieved 9 April 2010 – via National Archives.
4. ^ "US and Russian leaders hail nuclear arms treaty". BBC News. 8 April 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
5. ^ Fred Weir (26 January 2011). "With Russian ratification of New START, what's next for US-Russia relations?". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
6. ^ "Medvedev signs law ratifying Russia–U.S. arms pact". Reuters. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 August 2012.
7. ^ Baker, Peter (26 March 2010). "Twists and Turns on Way to Arms Pact With Russia". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
8. ^ "Putin Says Moscow Suspending Participation in New START Nuclear Treaty". Barrons. Agence France Presse. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
9. ^ Aman Eddine, Razy (20 December 2023). "Searching for Strategic Arms Control Obligations Amidst the Suspension of the New START Treaty." In Expanding Perspectives on Nuclear Disarmament (PDF). Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University. pp. 52–68.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
10. ^ "Putin defends Ukraine invasion, warns West in address". NHK World. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
11. ^ "The last US-Russia arms control treaty is in big trouble", Jen Kirby, Vox, 25 February 2023.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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9 April 1947 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 22 relating to Corfu Channel incident is adopted.

Corfu Channel incident

1946–48 altercations between the United Kingdom and Albania

The Corfu Channel incident consists of three separate events involving Royal Navy ships in the Channel of Corfu which took place in 1946, and it is considered an early episode of the Cold War.^{[1][4][5][6][7]} During the first incident, Royal Navy ships came under fire from Albanian fortifications.^[4] The second incident involved Royal Navy ships striking mines; and the third occurred when the Royal Navy conducted mine-clearing operations in the Corfu Channel, but in Albanian territorial waters,^[1] and Albania complained about them to the United Nations.^[4]

This series of incidents led to the Corfu Channel case, where the United Kingdom brought a case against the People's Republic of Albania to the International Court of Justice.^[8] The Court rendered a decision under which Albania was to pay £844,000 to the United Kingdom.^[6][9] This is equivalent to £37.7 million in 2015 terms.^[10] Because of the incidents, Britain in 1946 broke off talks with Albania aimed at establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. Diplomatic relations were only restored in 1991.^[11]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference Journal of Legal History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cook, Bernard A., ed. (2001). "Corfu Channel Incident". Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-8153-1336-6. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference ABC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ ^{a b c} Cook, Bernard A., ed. (2001). "Corfu Channel Incident". Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-8153-1336-6. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
5. ^ Times Online Obituary: Lieutenant-Commander Hugh Knollys Navigator who won a DSC on D-Day and survived when his destroyer hit a mine in the postwar Corfu Channel incident.
6. ^ ^{a b} Roselli, Alessandro (2006). Italy and Albania: financial relations in the Fascist period. I.B. Tauris. pp. 136–137. ISBN 9781845112547. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
7. ^ Waibel, Michael, (2012) ‘Corfu Channel Case’ in Rüdiger Wolfrum (ed), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, vol III (Oxford University Press 2012), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1919599
8. ^ JSTOR The Corfu Channel Case Quincy Wright The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 43, No. 3 (July 1949), pp. 491–494 (article consists of 4 pages) Published by: American Society of International Law Retrieved 31-07-08
9. ^ "Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v. Albania)". International Court of Justice. 30 September 1947 – 15 December 1949. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
10. ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference UK Embassy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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10 April 1872 – The first Arbor Day is celebrated in Nebraska.

Arbor Day

Holiday in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant and care for trees

For other uses, see Arbor Day (disambiguation).

Arbor Day (or Arbour Day in some countries) is a secular day of observance in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant trees.^[1] Today, many countries observe such a holiday. Though usually observed in the spring, the date varies, depending on climate and suitable planting season.

1. ^ Jones, David (2010). "'Plant trees': the foundations of Arbor Day in Australia". Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes. 30 (1): 77–93. doi:10.1080/14601170903010200. S2CID 161904923.

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11 April 1876 – The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks is organized.

Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks

American fraternal order

The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks (BPOE), commonly known as the Elks Lodge or simply The Elks, is an American fraternal order and charitable organization founded in 1868 in New York City. Originally established as a social club for minstrel show performers, it evolved into a nationwide brotherhood dedicated to community service, patriotism, and mutual aid. With over 750,000 members across 1,900+ local lodges,^[2] the Elks are known for philanthropic programs supporting veterans, youth scholarships (e.g., the "Hoop Shoot" contest), and disaster relief. The organization upholds four pillars—Charity, Justice, Brotherly Love, and Fidelity—and maintains traditions like the nightly "Hour of Recollection" toast to absent members. Historically exclusive (barring women and minorities until the late 20th century), the BPOE now admits all U.S. citizens over 21 who affirm belief in God.^[3] Its headquarters, the Elks National Veterans Memorial in Chicago, commemorates members who served in World War I.

1. ^ "Local Lodges". Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks. Accessed on March 18, 2016.
2. ^ "Local Lodges". Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
3. ^ "Membership FAQs". BPOE. Retrieved June 10, 2024.

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12 April 1945 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies in office; Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes President upon Roosevelt's death

Franklin D. Roosevelt

President of the United States from 1933 to 1945

"FDR" redirects here. For other uses, see FDR (disambiguation) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (disambiguation).

Franklin Delano Roosevelt^[a] (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), also known as FDR, was the 32nd president of the United States, serving from 1933 until his death in 1945. He is the longest-serving U.S. president, and the only one to have served more than two terms. His initial two terms were centered on combating the Great Depression, while his third and fourth saw him shift his focus to America's involvement in World War II.

A member of the prominent Delano and Roosevelt families, Roosevelt was elected to the New York State Senate from 1911 to 1913 and was then the assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson during World War I. Roosevelt was James M. Cox's running mate on the Democratic Party's ticket in the 1920 U.S. presidential election, but Cox lost to Republican nominee Warren G. Harding. In 1921, Roosevelt contracted a paralytic illness that permanently paralyzed his legs. Partly through the encouragement of his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, he returned to public office as governor of New York from 1929 to 1933, during which he promoted programs to combat the Great Depression. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated president Herbert Hoover in a landslide victory.

During his first 100 days as president, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing the New Deal, building the New Deal coalition, and realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System. He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other programs. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of Prohibition. In 1936, Roosevelt won a landslide reelection. He was unable to expand the Supreme Court in 1937, the same year the conservative coalition was formed to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and Social Security. In 1940, he ran successfully for reelection, before the official implementation of term limits.

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt obtained a declaration of war on Japan. When in turn, Japan's Axis partners, Nazi Germany and Italy, declared war on the U.S. on December 11, 1941, he secured additional declarations of war from the United States Congress. He worked closely with other national leaders in leading the Allies against the Axis powers. Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the American economy to support the war effort and implemented a Europe first strategy. He also initiated the development of the first atomic bomb and worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the United Nations and other post-war institutions, even coining the term "United Nations".^[2] Roosevelt won reelection in 1944 but died in 1945 after his physical health seriously and steadily declined during the war years. Since then, several of his actions have come under criticism, such as his ordering of the internment of Japanese Americans. Nonetheless, historical rankings consistently place him among the three greatest American presidents, and he is often considered an icon of American liberalism.

1. ^ "Roosevelt". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins.
2. ^ "When was the term United Nations first used?". United Nations. Retrieved December 14, 2023.

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13 April 1972 – Vietnam War: The Battle of An Lộc begins.

Battle of An Lộc

Battle during the Vietnam War (1972)

The Battle of An Lộc was a major battle of the Vietnam War that lasted for 66 days and culminated in a victory for South Vietnam. The struggle for An Lộc in 1972 was an important battle of the war, as South Vietnamese forces halted the North Vietnamese advance towards Saigon capital. This fighting which ensued became the most protracted conflict of the 1972 Easter Offensive.

During the first month of the battle, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) 5th Division was outnumbered by a combined force consisting of three People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and Viet Cong (VC) divisions. The An Lộc defenders were later reinforced by the elite 81st Ranger Group and the 1st Airborne Brigade, brought in by air after failing to pass the PAVN block at Tàu Ô.^[7]: 122 Other reinforcement was the 21st Division, which was plagued by a very slow move from the Mekong Delta and cleared QL-13 after protracted fighting.^[10]: J-26

1. ^ "Meeting with witnesses of Nguyễn Huệ Campaign". baobinhphuoc.com.vn. Retrieved 12 September 2024.
2. ^ "Lieutenant General Nguyễn Thới Bưng: the measure of a soldier is the battlefield". sggp.org.vn. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
3. ^ "Richard Tallman, Brigadier General, United States Army". The Virtual Wall. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
4. ^ ^{a b} Willbanks, James (1993). Thiet Giap! The Battle of An Loc, April 1972 (PDF). U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
5. ^ "Following the tanks' chain track". tapchicongthuong.vn. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
6. ^ ^{a b} Thi, Lam Quang (2009). Hell in An Loc: The 1972 Easter Invasion and the Battle that Saved South Vietnam. University of North Texas Press. ISBN 9781574412765.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Ngo, Quang Truong (1980). The Easter Offensive of 1972 (PDF). U.S. Army Center of Military History. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 13, 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
8. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2nd ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 51. ISBN 9781851099603.
9. ^ Hồ sơ cục Quân y: Chiến dịch Nguyễn Huệ 4/1972 - 1/1973: 13,412 wounded (26.83% total forces); included phase 1 (battle of Loc Ninh and battle of An Loc): 6,214 wounded. Total killed or missing during the campaign: 3,961 (included 50% in phase 1)
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference MACV was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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14 April 1865 – U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is shot in Ford's Theatre by John Wilkes Booth; Lincoln dies the following day

Assassination of Abraham Lincoln

1865 murder in Washington, D.C., US

On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, was shot by John Wilkes Booth while attending the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. Shot in the head as he watched the play,^[2] Lincoln died of his wounds the following day at 7:22 am in the Petersen House opposite the theater.^[3] He was the first U.S. president to be assassinated.^[4] His funeral and burial were marked by an extended period of national mourning.

Near the end of the American Civil War, Lincoln's assassination was part of a larger political conspiracy intended by Booth to revive the Confederate cause by eliminating the three most important officials of the federal government. Conspirators Lewis Powell and David Herold were assigned to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward, and George Atzerodt was tasked with killing Vice President Andrew Johnson.

Beyond Lincoln's death, the plot failed: Seward was only wounded, and Johnson's would-be attacker became drunk instead of killing the vice president. After a dramatic initial escape, Booth was killed at the end of a 12-day chase. Powell, Herold, Atzerodt, and Mary Surratt were later hanged for their roles in the conspiracy.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Evidence was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Abel, E. Lawrence (2015). A Finger in Lincoln's Brain: What Modern Science Reveals about Lincoln, His Assassination, and Its Aftermath. ABC-CLIO. p. 63. ISBN 9781440831195. Forensic evidence clearly indicates Booth could not have fired at point-blank range ... At a distance of three or more feet, the gunshot did not leave any stippling or any other residues on the surface of Lincoln's head ... Dr. Robert Stone, the Lincoln's' family physician, was explicit: "The hair or scalp (on Lincoln's head) was not in the least burn[t]."
3. ^ Fraser, Richard A. R. (February–March 1995). "How Did Lincoln Die?". American Heritage. 46 (1).
4. ^ "Today in History - April 14". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.

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15 April 1736 – Foundation of the short-lived Kingdom of Corsica.

Kingdom of Corsica (1736)

Unrecognized Mediterranean island from March–November

"Kingdom of Corsica" redirects here. For the 14th-century union with Sardinia, see Kingdom of Sardinia. For the state which existed during the 1790s, see Anglo-Corsican Kingdom.

The Kingdom of Corsica was a short-lived kingdom on the island of Corsica. It was formed after the islanders crowned the German adventurer Theodor Stephan Freiherr von Neuhoff^[1] as King of Corsica.

1. ^ Regarding personal names: Freiherr was a title before 1919, but now is regarded as part of the surname. It is translated as Baron. Before the August 1919 abolition of nobility as a legal class, titles preceded the full name when given (Graf Helmuth James von Moltke). Since 1919, these titles, along with any nobiliary prefix (von, zu, etc.), can be used, but are regarded as a dependent part of the surname, and thus come after any given names (Helmuth James Graf von Moltke). Titles and all dependent parts of surnames are ignored in alphabetical sorting. The feminine forms are Freifrau and Freiin.

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16 April 2007 – Virginia Tech shooting: Seung-Hui Cho guns down 32 people and injures 17 before committing suicide.

Virginia Tech shooting

2007 mass shooting in Blacksburg, Virginia, US

This article is about the April 16, 2007, shootings. For the 2006 incident, see William Morva.

The Virginia Tech shooting was a spree shooting that occurred on Monday, April 16, 2007, comprising two attacks on the campus of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) in Blacksburg, Virginia, United States. Seung-Hui Cho, an undergraduate student at the university, killed 32 people and wounded 17 others with two semi-automatic pistols before committing suicide. Six others were injured jumping out of windows to escape Cho.

The first shooting occurred at West Ambler Johnston Hall, a dormitory, where two people were killed; the main attack was a school shooting at Norris Hall, a classroom building, where Cho chained the main entrance doors shut and fired into four classrooms and a stairwell, killing thirty more people. As police stormed Norris Hall, Cho fatally shot himself in the head. It was the deadliest mass shooting in modern U.S. history and remained so for nine years until the Pulse nightclub shooting. It remains the deadliest school shooting in U.S. history and the deadliest mass shooting in Virginia history.

The attacks received international media coverage and provoked widespread criticism of U.S. gun culture.^[9] It sparked debate about gun violence, gun laws, gaps in the U.S. system for treating mental health issues, Cho's state of mind, the responsibility of college administrations,^[10] privacy laws, journalism ethics, and other issues. News organizations that aired portions of Cho's multimedia manifesto were criticized by victims' families, Virginia law enforcement officials, and the American Psychiatric Association.^[11][12]

Cho had previously been diagnosed with selective mutism and severe depression. During much of his middle school and high school years, he received therapy and special education support. After graduating from high school, Cho enrolled at Virginia Tech. Because of federal privacy laws, the university was unaware of Cho's previous diagnoses or the accommodations he had been granted at school. In 2005, Cho was accused of stalking two female students.^[13] After an investigation, a Virginia special justice declared Cho mentally ill and ordered him to attend treatment. Because he was not institutionalized, he was allowed to purchase guns.^[14] The shooting prompted the state of Virginia to close legal loopholes that had allowed individuals adjudicated as mentally unsound to purchase handguns without detection by the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS). It also led to the passage of the first major federal gun control measure in the U.S. since 1994. The law strengthening the NICS was signed by President George W. Bush on January 5, 2008.^[15]

Administrators at Virginia Tech were criticized by the Virginia Tech Review Panel, a state-appointed panel tasked with investigating the incident, for failing to take action that might have decreased the number of casualties.^[16] The panel's report also reviewed gun laws and pointed out gaps in mental health care as well as privacy laws that left Cho's deteriorating condition untreated when he was a student at Virginia Tech.^{[17]: 78 [18]: 2}37°13′37″N 80°25′19″W / 37.227°N 80.422°W / 37.227; -80.422

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Norris was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.III was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Williams was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.X was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.VIII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference NSCC1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gibbons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Perry was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Spielman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Maddox was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference APA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stalking was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Luo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cochran was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Urbina, Ian (August 30, 2007). "Virginia Tech Criticized for Actions in Shooting (Published 2007)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved December 4, 2020.
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.VII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.Sum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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