This day in .....

4 December 1865 – North Carolina ratifies 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed two days later by Georgia, and U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks.

Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

1865 amendment abolishing slavery

"Thirteenth Amendment" redirects here. For other uses, see Thirteenth Amendment (disambiguation).

The Thirteenth Amendment (Amendment XIII) to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. The amendment was passed by the Senate on April 8, 1864, by the House of Representatives on January 31, 1865, and ratified by the required 27 of the then 36 states on December 6, 1865, and proclaimed on December 18, 1865. It was the first of the three Reconstruction Amendments adopted following the American Civil War.

President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, effective on January 1, 1863, declared that the enslaved in Confederate-controlled areas (and thus almost all slaves) were free. When they escaped to Union lines or federal forces (including now-former slaves) advanced south, emancipation occurred without any compensation to the former owners. Texas was the last Confederate slave state, where enforcement of the proclamation was declared on June 19, 1865. In the slave-owning areas controlled by Union forces on January 1, 1863, state action was used to abolish slavery. The exceptions were Kentucky and Delaware, where chattel slavery and indentured servitude were finally ended by the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865.

In contrast to the other Reconstruction Amendments, the Thirteenth Amendment has rarely been cited in case law, but it has been used to strike down peonage and some race-based discrimination as "badges and incidents of slavery". The Thirteenth Amendment has also been invoked to empower Congress to make laws against modern forms of slavery, such as sex trafficking. It was the first amendment to directly govern private individuals instead of just the government.^[1]

From its inception in 1776, the United States was divided into states that allowed slavery and states that prohibited it. Slavery was implicitly recognized in the original Constitution in provisions such as the Three-fifths Compromise (Article I, Section 2, Clause 3), which provided that three-fifths of each state's enslaved population ("other persons") was to be added to its free population for the purposes of apportioning seats in the United States House of Representatives, its number of Electoral votes, and direct taxes among the states. The Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3) provided that slaves held under the laws of one state who escaped to another state did not become free, but remained slaves.

Though three million Confederate slaves were eventually freed as a result of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, their postwar status was uncertain. To ensure that abolition was beyond legal challenge, an amendment to the Constitution to that effect was drafted. On April 8, 1864, the Senate passed an amendment to abolish slavery. After one unsuccessful vote and extensive legislative maneuvering by the Lincoln administration, the House followed suit on January 31, 1865. The measure was swiftly ratified by nearly all Northern states, along with a sufficient number of border states up to the assassination of President Lincoln. However, the approval came via his successor, President Andrew Johnson, who encouraged the "reconstructed" Southern states of Alabama, North Carolina, and Georgia to agree, which brought the count to 27 states, leading to its adoption before the end of 1865.

Though the Amendment abolished slavery throughout the United States, some black Americans, particularly in the South, were subjected to other forms of involuntary labor, such as under the Black Codes. They were also victims of white supremacist violence, selective enforcement of statutes, and other disabilities. Many such abuses were given cover by the Amendment's penal labor exception.

1. ^ Barrett, Amy Coney (2025). Listening to the Law. Penguin. pp. 146–7. ISBN 9780593421864.

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5 December 1578 – Sir Francis Drake, after sailing through Strait of Magellan, raids Valparaiso

Francis Drake

English sailor and privateer (c. 1540 – 1596)

This article is about the Elizabethan naval commander. For other uses, see Francis Drake (disambiguation).

Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English explorer and privateer best known for making the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580 (being the first English expedition to accomplish this). He is also known for participating in the early English slaving voyages of his cousin, John Hawkins, and John Lovell. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the Spanish Armada as a vice admiral.

At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, William Hawkins, a prominent sea captain in Plymouth. In 1572, he set sail on his first independent mission, privateering along the Spanish Main. Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to New Albion, plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the Golden Hind.

Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the Anglo-Spanish War began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the English Armada in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.

Drake was a Member of Parliament (MP) for three constituencies: Camelford in 1581, Bossiney in 1584, and Plymouth in 1593. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a pirate, known to them as El Draque ("The Dragon" in old Spanish).^[1] He died of dysentery after his failed assault on Panama in January 1596.

1. ^ ^{a b} Edmundson, William (2009). A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence. Springer. p. 9. ISBN 978-0230101210. The fame of his exploits spread to the extent that by the mid-1570s, Philip began to refer to him as Draque, Francisco Draque, El Draque, and even more intimately as El Capitán Francisco. Educated Spaniards called him Francisco Draguez, and Spanish mothers warned their children that if they did not behave, El Draco would come and take them away – a play on words, since el drake in old Spanish means "the dragon", derived from the Latin Draco.
2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
3. ^ Woolsey, Matt (19 September 2008). "Top-Earning Pirates". Forbes.com. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 5 February 2013.

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6 December 1912 – The Nefertiti Bust is discovered.

Nefertiti Bust

Ancient sculpture from Egypt

The Nefertiti Bust is a painted stucco-coated limestone bust of Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten.^[1] It is on display in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin.

The work is believed to have been crafted in 1345 BC by Thutmose because it was found in his sculpture workshop in Tell-el Amarna, Egypt.^[2] It is one of the most-copied works of ancient Egypt. Nefertiti has become one of the most famous women of the ancient world and an icon of feminine beauty.^[3]

A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt discovered the bust in 1912 during an excavation of the sculptor's workshop.^[4] It has been kept at various locations in Germany since its discovery, including the cellar of a bank, a salt-mine in Merkers-Kieselbach, the Dahlem museum, the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg and the Altes Museum.^[4] It is displayed at the Neues Museum in Berlin, where it was originally displayed before World War II.^[4] Egypt has called for the return of the bust, citing provisions that prohibited any items of great archaeological value from leaving Egypt. Egypt accuses Borchardt of "wrapping the bust to conceal its value and smuggling it out of the country".^[5]

The Nefertiti Bust has become not only a defining emblem of ancient Egypt, but also a symbol of the impact that European colonialism has had on Egypt's history and culture. It has been the subject of an argument between Egypt and Germany over Egyptian demands for its repatriation, which began in 1924, once the bust was first displayed to the public, and more generally it fuelled discussions over the role museums play in undoing colonialism.^[6] Today, Egypt continues to demand the repatriation of the bust, whereas German officials and the Berlin Museum assert their ownership by citing an official protocol, signed by the German excavators and the French-led Egyptian Antiquities Service at the time of the excavation.

1. ^ "Nefertiti – Ancient History". History.com. 15 June 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
2. ^ e.V., Verein zur Förderung des Ägyptischen Museums und Papyrussammlung Berlin. "Nefertiti: (Society for the Promotion of the Egyptian Museum Berlin)". www.egyptian-museum-berlin.com. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
3. ^ Conrad, Sebastian (2024). "The Making of a Global Icon: Nefertiti's Twentieth-Century Career". Global Intellectual History: 1–32. doi:10.1080/23801883.2024.2303074. ISSN 2380-1883.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Tharoor, Ishaan. "The Bust of Nefertiti: Remembering Ancient Egypt's Famous Queen". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
5. ^ "Egypt renews demands to retrieve Nefertiti bust from Germany". www.al-monitor.com. October 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
6. ^ Diamond, Kelly-Anne (6 April 2019). "DO MUSEUMS PLAY A ROLE IN UNDOING COLONIALISM?". Hindsights. Retrieved 15 April 2023.

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7 December 1724 – Tumult of Thorn: Religious unrest is followed by the execution of nine Protestant citizens and the mayor of Thorn (Toruń) by Polish authorities.

Tumult of Thorn (Toruń)

Religious conflict in Royal Prussia in 1724

The Tumult of Thorn (Toruń), or Blood-Bath of Thorn^[1] (Polish: Tumult toruński; German: Thorner Blutgericht, lit. 'Bloody court of Thorn') refers to executions ordered in 1724 by the Polish supreme court under Augustus II the Strong of Poland. During a religious conflict between Protestant townsfolk represented by mayor Johann Gottfried Rösner, and the Roman Catholic students of the Jesuit college in the city of Thorn (Toruń) in Royal Prussia, the college had been vandalised by a crowd of German Protestants. The mayor and nine other Lutheran officials were blamed for neglect of duty, sentenced to death, and executed on 7 December 1724.^[2]

1. ^ Davies, Norman (2001). Heart of Europe: the Past in Poland's Present. Oxford University Press. p. 264. ISBN 0-19-280126-0.
   Smith Anderson, Matthew (1993). The rise of modern diplomacy, 1450–1919. Longman publ. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-582-21232-9.
   Mitchison, Rosalind (1966). Essays in eighteenth-century history. Barnes&Noble. p. 268.
2. ^ As quoted from The English historical review (and) Essays in eighteenth-century history

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8 December 1962 – Workers at four New York City newspapers (this later increases to nine) go on strike for 114 days.

1962–1963 New York City newspaper strike

1962-63 strike within the newspaper industry of New York City

The 1962–1963 New York City newspaper strike was a strike action within the newspaper industry of New York City which ran from December 8, 1962 until March 31, 1963, lasting for a total of 114 days. Besides protesting low wages, the unions were resisting automation of the printing presses.

The strike played a pivotal role in changing the attitude of the public to daily newspapers, leading to the demise of some papers and paved the way for new print publications and the start of all-news radio in the New York Metropolitan Area.

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9 December 1531 – The Virgin of Guadalupe first appears to Juan Diego at Tepeyac, Mexico City

Our Lady of Guadalupe

Marian apparitions in December 1531

This article is about the Mexican Marian title. For the Spanish Marian title, see Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura.

Our Lady of Guadalupe (Spanish: Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe), also known as the Virgin of Guadalupe (Spanish: Virgen de Guadalupe), is a Catholic title of the Blessed Virgin Mary associated with four Marian apparitions to Juan Diego and one to his uncle, Juan Bernardino reported in December 1531, when the Mexican territories were part of the Spanish Empire.

A venerated image on a cloak (tilmahtli) associated with the apparition is enshrined in the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City.

Pope Leo XIII granted a decree of canonical coronation for the image on 8 February 1887. The rite of coronation was executed by the former Archbishop of Mexico, Próspero Alarcón y Sánchez de la Barquera on 12 October 1895. Pope Paul VI raised the shrine to the status of Minor Basilica via his Pontifical decree titled Sacra illa Ædes on 6 October 1976. It is the most-visited Catholic shrine in the world, and the world's third most-visited sacred site.^[2][3]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Johnson2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "World's Most-Visited Sacred Sites". Travel and Leisure. January 2012
3. ^ "Shrine of Guadalupe Most Popular in the Worldv". Zenit. June 13, 1999. Archived from the original on May 7, 2016. Retrieved June 12, 2009.

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10 December 1768 – The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica is published.

Encyclopædia Britannica

General knowledge encyclopaedia

"Britannica" redirects here. For other uses, see Britannica (disambiguation).

The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for 'British Encyclopaedia') is a general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published since 1768, and after several ownership changes is currently owned by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition.^[1] Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia at the website Britannica.com.

Printed for 245 years, the Britannica was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland, in weekly instalments that came together to form three volumes. At first, the encyclopaedia, from edition to edition, grew quickly in size. The second edition was extended to 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition (1801–1810), the Britannica had expanded to 20 volumes. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, its size (at least in terms of total word length) has remained roughly steady, at about 40 million words.^[2]

The Britannica's rising stature as an authoritative and scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. Though published in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling.

In 1932, the Britannica adopted a policy of "continuous revision," in which the encyclopaedia is continually revised and reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule.^[3] The publishers of Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia had already pioneered such a policy.^[4]

The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single Propædia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The Micropædia was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the Macropædia; readers are advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles.

In the 21st century, the Britannica faced strong competition: in particular from the digital and multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta,^[5] and later from the online peer-produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia.^[6][7][8] Despite (or perhaps because of) such competition, Britannica retained its reputation for authoritative, comprehensive, structured, and scholarly treatments of included subjects.^[9] While it continued to score well in assessments of its overall quality,^[10] as compared to its competitors, it could not (as an expert-authored compilation of a limited number of articles on only important subjects), match their breadth of coverage and continuous updating.^[7]

In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.^[7][11]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference nytstop was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Jeff Loveland, "Why Encyclopedias Got Bigger ... and Smaller," Information and Culture 47 (2012): 244.
3. ^ Paul Kruse, "The Story of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1768-1943," PhD dissertation (University of Chicago, 1958), 389.
4. ^ M. A. Khan, The Principles and Practice of Library Science (New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 1996), 281.
5. ^ Carmody, Tim (14 March 2012). "Wikipedia Didn't Kill Britannica. Windows Did". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 15 July 2023. Note that in 1985 Microsoft approached Encyclopaedia Britannica to collaborate on digitizing and releasing Britannica's material on CD-ROM; this collaboration did not eventuate, and Microsoft then pursued deals with other encyclopaedia companies (including Funk and Wagnalls) instead.
6. ^ Cooke, Richard (17 February 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet". Wired. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Bosman, Julie (13 March 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
8. ^ McArdle, Megan (15 March 2012). "Encyclopaedia Britannica Goes Out of Print, Won't Be Missed". The Atlantic. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
9. ^ "Britannica sold by Benton Foundation". University of Chicago Chronicle. 15 (8). 4 January 1996.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference thomas_1992 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Kearney, Christine (14 March 2012). "Encyclopaedia Britannica: After 244 years in print, only digital copies sold". The Christian Science Monitor. Reuters. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2019.

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10 December 1768 – The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica is published.

Encyclopædia Britannica

General knowledge encyclopaedia

"Britannica" redirects here. For other uses, see Britannica (disambiguation).

The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for 'British Encyclopaedia') is a general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published since 1768, and after several ownership changes is currently owned by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition.^[1] Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia at the website Britannica.com.

Printed for 245 years, the Britannica was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland, in weekly instalments that came together to form three volumes. At first, the encyclopaedia, from edition to edition, grew quickly in size. The second edition was extended to 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition (1801–1810), the Britannica had expanded to 20 volumes. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, its size (at least in terms of total word length) has remained roughly steady, at about 40 million words.^[2]

The Britannica's rising stature as an authoritative and scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. Though published in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling.

In 1932, the Britannica adopted a policy of "continuous revision," in which the encyclopaedia is continually revised and reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule.^[3] The publishers of Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia had already pioneered such a policy.^[4]

The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single Propædia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The Micropædia was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the Macropædia; readers are advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles.

In the 21st century, the Britannica faced strong competition: in particular from the digital and multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta,^[5] and later from the online peer-produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia.^[6][7][8] Despite (or perhaps because of) such competition, Britannica retained its reputation for authoritative, comprehensive, structured, and scholarly treatments of included subjects.^[9] While it continued to score well in assessments of its overall quality,^[10] as compared to its competitors, it could not (as an expert-authored compilation of a limited number of articles on only important subjects), match their breadth of coverage and continuous updating.^[7]

In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.^[7][11]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference nytstop was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Jeff Loveland, "Why Encyclopedias Got Bigger ... and Smaller," Information and Culture 47 (2012): 244.
3. ^ Paul Kruse, "The Story of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1768-1943," PhD dissertation (University of Chicago, 1958), 389.
4. ^ M. A. Khan, The Principles and Practice of Library Science (New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 1996), 281.
5. ^ Carmody, Tim (14 March 2012). "Wikipedia Didn't Kill Britannica. Windows Did". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 15 July 2023. Note that in 1985 Microsoft approached Encyclopaedia Britannica to collaborate on digitizing and releasing Britannica's material on CD-ROM; this collaboration did not eventuate, and Microsoft then pursued deals with other encyclopaedia companies (including Funk and Wagnalls) instead.
6. ^ Cooke, Richard (17 February 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet". Wired. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Bosman, Julie (13 March 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
8. ^ McArdle, Megan (15 March 2012). "Encyclopaedia Britannica Goes Out of Print, Won't Be Missed". The Atlantic. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
9. ^ "Britannica sold by Benton Foundation". University of Chicago Chronicle. 15 (8). 4 January 1996.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference thomas_1992 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Kearney, Christine (14 March 2012). "Encyclopaedia Britannica: After 244 years in print, only digital copies sold". The Christian Science Monitor. Reuters. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2019.

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11 December 1972 – Apollo 17 becomes the sixth and final Apollo mission to land on the Moon.

Apollo 17

Sixth and most recent crewed Moon landing

Apollo 17 (December 7–19, 1972) was the eleventh and final mission of NASA's Apollo program, the sixth and most recent time humans have set foot on the Moon. Commander Gene Cernan and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt walked on the Moon, while Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans orbited above. Schmitt was the only professional geologist to land on the Moon; he was selected in place of Joe Engle, as NASA had been under pressure to send a scientist to the Moon. The mission's heavy emphasis on science meant the inclusion of a number of new experiments, including a biological experiment containing five mice that was carried in the command module.

Mission planners had two primary goals in deciding on the landing site: to sample lunar highland material older than that at Mare Imbrium and to investigate the possibility of relatively recent volcanic activity. They therefore selected Taurus–Littrow, where formations that had been viewed and pictured from orbit were thought to be volcanic in nature. Since all three crew members had backed up previous Apollo lunar missions, they were familiar with the Apollo spacecraft and had more time for geology training.

Launched at 12:33 a.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST) on December 7, 1972, following the only launchpad delay in the Apollo program, which was caused by a hardware problem, Apollo 17 was a "J-type" mission that included three days on the lunar surface, expanded scientific capability, and the use of the third Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). Cernan and Schmitt landed in the Taurus–Littrow valley, completed three moonwalks, took lunar samples and deployed scientific instruments. Orange soil was discovered at Shorty crater; it proved to be volcanic in origin, although from early in the Moon's history. Evans remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module (CSM), taking scientific measurements and photographs. The spacecraft returned to Earth on December 19.

The mission broke several records for crewed spaceflight, including the longest crewed lunar landing mission (12 days, 14 hours),^[7] greatest distance from a spacecraft during an extravehicular activity of any type (7.6 kilometers or 4.7 miles), longest time on the lunar surface (75 hours), longest total duration of lunar-surface extravehicular activities (22 hours, 4 minutes),^[8] largest lunar-sample return (approximately 115 kg or 254 lb), longest time in lunar orbit (6 days, 4 hours),^[7] and greatest number of lunar orbits (75).^[9]

1. ^ Orloff 2004, Statistical Tables: Launch Vehicle/Spacecraft Key Facts.
2. ^ Orloff & Harland 2006, p. 585.
3. ^ Orloff & Harland 2006, p. 581.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference astronautix was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} Orloff, Richard W. (2000). "Apollo 17". Apollo by the Numbers (PDF). NASA. p. 243. NASA SP-2000-4029. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
6. ^ "NASA NSSDC Master Catalog – Apollo 17 descent stage". NASA. Archived from the original on April 17, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2011.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Astronaut Friday: Ronald Evans". Space Center Houston. December 28, 2018. Archived from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 7, 2022.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference eva table was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Orloff 2004, Apollo 17: The Eleventh Mission.

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12 December 2015 – The Paris Agreement relating to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is adopted.

Paris Agreement

2015 international treaty regarding climate change

This article is about the 2015 climate accords. For the 1954 conferences to determine the status of West Germany, see London and Paris Conferences. For the treaty that ended the Cambodian-Vietnamese War, see 1991 Paris Peace Agreements. For different topics, see List of Paris meetings, agreements and declarations.

The Paris Agreement (also called the Paris Accords or Paris Climate Accords) is an international treaty on climate change that was signed in 2016.^[3] The treaty covers climate change mitigation, adaptation, and finance. The Paris Agreement was negotiated by 196 parties at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference near Paris, France. As of February 2023, 195 members of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are parties to the agreement. Of the three UNFCCC member states which have not ratified the agreement, the only major emitter is Iran. The United States, the second largest emitter, withdrew from the agreement in 2020,^[4] rejoined in 2021,^[5] and announced its withdrawal again in 2025.^[6]

The Paris Agreement has a long-term temperature goal which is to keep the rise in global surface temperature to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) above pre-industrial levels. The treaty also states that preferably the limit of the increase should only be 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). These limits are defined as averages of the global temperature as measured over many years.^[7]

The lower the temperature increase, the smaller the effects of climate change can be expected. To achieve this temperature goal, greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced as soon as, and by as much as, possible. They should even reach net zero by the middle of the 21st century.^[8] To stay below 1.5 °C of global warming, emissions need to be cut by roughly 50% by 2030. This figure takes into account each country's documented pledges.^[9] After the Paris Agreement was signed, global emissions continued to rise rather than fall.^[7] 2024 was the hottest year on record, with a rise of more than 1.5 °C in global average temperature.^[7]

The treaty aims to help countries adapt to climate change effects, and mobilize enough finance. Under the agreement, each country must determine, plan, and regularly report on its contributions. No mechanism forces a country to set specific emissions targets, but each target should go beyond previous targets. In contrast to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the distinction between developed and developing countries is blurred, so that the latter also have to submit plans for emission reductions.

The Paris Agreement was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 (Earth Day) at a ceremony inside the UN Headquarters in New York. After the European Union ratified the agreement, sufficient countries had ratified the agreement responsible for enough of the world's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force on 4 November 2016.

World leaders have lauded the agreement.^[10] However, there is debate about its effectiveness, with some environmentalists and analysts criticizing it for not being strict enough. While pledges under the Paris Agreement are insufficient for reaching the set temperature goals, there is a mechanism of increased ambition. The Paris Agreement has been successfully used in climate litigation in the late 2010s forcing countries and oil companies to strengthen climate action.^[11][12]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference depo2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Paris Climate Agreement Becomes International Law". ABC News. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference UScom was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference :20 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Calma, Justine (20 January 2025). "Donald Trump pulls US out of Paris climate agreement". The Verge. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Zhong, Raymond; Plumer, Brad; Rojanasakul, Mira (10 January 2025). "2024's Record-Breaking Heat Brought the World to a Dangerous Threshold. Now What?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 January 2025.
8. ^ UNFCCC. "The Paris Agreement". unfccc.int. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
9. ^ Schleussner, Carl-Friedrich. "The Paris Agreement – the 1.5 °C Temperature Goal". Climate Analytics. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference auto2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference :18 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference :19 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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13 December 1642 – Abel Tasman is the first recorded European to sight New Zealand.

Abel Tasman

Dutch seafarer, explorer and merchant (1603–1659)

For other uses, see Abel Tasman (disambiguation).

Abel Janszoon Tasman (Dutch: [ˈaːbəl ˈjɑnsoːn ˈtɑsmɑn]; 1603 – 10 October 1659) was a Dutch seafarer and explorer, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). He was the first European to reach New Zealand, which he named Staten Landt. He was also the eponym of Tasmania.

Likely born in 1602 or 1603^[1] in Lutjegast, Netherlands, Tasman started his career as a merchant seaman and became a skilled navigator. In 1633, he joined the VOC and sailed to Batavia, now Jakarta, Indonesia. He participated in several voyages, including one to Japan. In 1642, Tasman was appointed by the VOC to lead an expedition to explore the uncharted regions of the Southern Pacific Ocean. His mission was to discover new trade routes and to establish trade relations with the native inhabitants. After leaving Batavia, Tasman sailed westward to Mauritius, then south to the Roaring Forties, then eastward, and reached the coast of Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land after his patron, Anthony van Diemen. He then sailed north east, and was the first European to discover the west coast of New Zealand, which he named Staten Landt. It was later renamed Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch province of Zeeland, by Joan Blaeu, official Dutch cartographer to the Dutch East India Company.^[1]

Despite his achievements, Tasman's expedition was not entirely successful. The encounter with the Māori people on the South Island of New Zealand resulted in a violent confrontation, which left four of Tasman's men dead. He returned to Batavia without having made any significant contact with the native inhabitants or establishing any trade relations. Nonetheless, Tasman's expedition paved the way for further exploitation and colonization of Australia and New Zealand by the British. Tasman continued to serve the Dutch East India Company until his death in 1659.

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference teara was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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14 December 1782 – The Montgolfier brothers first test fly an unmanned hot air balloon in France; it floats nearly 2.5 km (1.6 mi).

Montgolfier brothers

18th-century French inventors

For the British band, see The Montgolfier Brothers. "Montgolfier" redirects here. For the crater, see Montgolfier (crater). For other people named Montgolfier, see Montgolfier (surname).

The Montgolfier brothers – Joseph-Michel Montgolfier (French: [ʒozɛf miʃɛl mɔ̃ɡɔlfje]; 26 August 1740 – 26 June 1810)^[1] and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier ([ʒak etjɛn mɔ̃ɡɔlfje]; 6 January 1745 – 2 August 1799)^[1] – were aviation pioneers, balloonists and paper manufacturers from the commune Annonay in Ardèche, France. They invented the Montgolfière-style hot air balloon, globe aérostatique, which launched the first confirmed piloted ascent by humans in 1783, carrying Jacques-Étienne.

Joseph-Michel also invented the self-acting hydraulic ram (1796) and Jacques-Étienne founded the first paper-making vocational school. Together, the brothers invented a process to manufacture transparent paper.

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference britannica was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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15 December 1791 – The United States Bill of Rights becomes law when ratified by the Virginia General Assembly.

United States Bill of Rights

First ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution

The United States Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. It was proposed following the often bitter 1787–88 debate over the ratification of the Constitution and written to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists. The amendments of the Bill of Rights add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms, such as freedom of speech, the right to publish, practice religion, possess firearms, to assemble, and other natural and legal rights. Its clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings include explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved to the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those in earlier documents, especially the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), as well as the Northwest Ordinance (1787),^[1] the English Bill of Rights (1689), and Magna Carta (1215).^[2]

Largely because of the efforts of Representative James Madison, who studied the deficiencies of the Constitution pointed out by Anti-Federalists and then crafted a series of corrective proposals, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment on September 25, 1789, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison's proposal that the proposed amendments be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution (at the relevant articles and sections of the document), they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it.^[3] Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty-seventh Amendment. Article One is still pending before the states.

Although Madison's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation.^[4]

James Madison initially opposed the idea of creating a bill of rights, primarily for two reasons:

1. The Constitution did not grant the federal government the power to take away people’s rights. The federal government’s powers are "few and defined" (listed in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution). Any powers not listed in the Constitution reside with the states or the people themselves.^[5][6][7]
2. By creating a list of people’s rights, then anything not on the list was therefore not protected. Madison and the other Framers believed that we have natural rights and they are too numerous to list. So, writing a list would be counterproductive.^[8][9]

However, opponents of the ratification of the Constitution objected that it contained no bill of rights. So, in order to secure ratification, Madison agreed to support adding a bill of rights, and even served as its author. He resolved the dilemma mentioned in Item 2 above by including the 9th Amendment, which states that just because a right has not been listed in the Bill of Rights does not mean that it does not exist.^[10]

There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

1. ^ Bryan, Dan (April 8, 2012). "The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and its Effects". American History USA. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
2. ^ "Bill of Rights". history.com. A&E Television Networks. October 27, 2009. Archived from the original on February 25, 2019. Retrieved February 24, 2019.
3. ^ England, Trent; Spalding, Matthew. "Essays on Article V: Amendments". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on July 1, 2018. Retrieved February 24, 2019.
4. ^ "Bill of Rights – Facts & Summary". History.com. October 27, 2009. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
5. ^ Rossiter, Clinton, ed. The Federalist Papers, p. 260, Federalist #45, Penguin Putnam, Inc., 1961.
6. ^ Samples, John, ed. James Madison and the Future of Limited Government, p. 25, 29-30, 31, 34, Cato Institute, Washington, D.C., 2002. ISBN 1-930865-23-6.
7. ^ Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography, p. 226, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. ISBN 0-945707-33-9.
8. ^ Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography, p. 226, 291, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. ISBN 0-945707-33-9.
9. ^ Samples, John, ed. James Madison and the Future of Limited Government, p. 27, 29-30, 31, 34, Cato Institute, Washington, D.C., 2002. ISBN 1-930865-23-6.
10. ^ The Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of California, p. 56, California Legislature Assembly, 1989.

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16 December 1707 – Most Recent Eruption of Mount Fuji

Hōei eruption

Last major eruption of Mount Fuji (1707–08)

The Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji started on December 16, 1707 (during the Hōei era, 23rd day of the 11th month of the 4th year) and ended on February 24, 1708. It was the last confirmed eruption of Mount Fuji, with three unconfirmed eruptions reported from 1708 to 1854.^[2] The eruption took place during the reign of Emperor Higashiyama and the Shogun was Tokugawa Tsunayoshi. It is well known for the immense ash-fall it produced over eastern Japan and subsequent landslides and starvation across the country. Hokusai's One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji includes an image of the small crater at a secondary eruption site on the southwestern slope. The area where the eruption occurred is called Mount Hōei because it occurred in the fourth year of the Hōei era.^[3] Today, the crater of the main eruption can be visited from the Fujinomiya or Gotemba Trails on Mount Fuji.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Fujisan". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Global Volcanism Program was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference s197 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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17 December 1790 – The Aztec calendar stone is discovered at El Zócalo, Mexico City.

Aztec sun stone

16th-century Mexica sculpture

"Sun stone" redirects here. For the gemstone, see Sunstone. For other uses, see Sunstone (disambiguation).

19°25′34″N 99°11′15″W / 19.42611°N 99.18750°W / 19.42611; -99.18750

The Aztec sun stone (Spanish: Piedra del Sol) is a late post-classic Mexica sculpture housed in the National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City, and is perhaps the most famous work of Mexica sculpture.^[1][2] It measures 3.6 metres (12 ft) in diameter and 98 centimetres (39 in) thick, and weighs 24,590 kg (54,210 lb).^[3] Shortly after the Spanish conquest, the monolithic sculpture was buried in the Zócalo, the main square of Mexico City. It was rediscovered on 17 December 1790 during repairs on the Mexico City Cathedral.^[2][4] Following its rediscovery, the sun stone was mounted on an exterior wall of the cathedral, where it remained until 1885.^[5] Early scholars initially thought that the stone was carved in the 1470s, though modern research suggests that it was carved some time between 1502 and 1521.^[6]

1. ^ "National Anthropology Museum, Mexico City, "Sun Stone"". Archived from the original on 2014-04-07. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
2. ^ ^{a b} Stuart, David (2021). King and Cosmos: An Interpretation of the Aztec Calendar Stone. Precolumbia Mesoweb Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-7350606-3-7.
3. ^ Ordóñez, Esequiel (1893). La roca del Calendario Azteca (Primera Edición edición). México: Imprenta del Gobierno Federal. pp. 326–331.
4. ^ Florescano, Enrique (2006). National Narratives in Mexico. Nancy T. Hancock (trans.), Raul Velasquez (illus.) (English-language edition of Historia de las historias de la nación mexicana, 2002 [Mexico City:Taurus] ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3701-0. OCLC 62857841.
5. ^ Getty Museum, "Aztec Calendar Stone" getty.edu, accessed 22 August 2018
6. ^ Villela, Khristaan. "The Aztec Calendar Stone or Sun Stone", MexicoLore. Retrieved December 17, 2015.

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18 December 1966 – Saturn's moon Epimetheus is discovered by astronomer Richard Walker.

Epimetheus (moon)

Moon of Saturn

For the asteroid, see 1810 Epimetheus.

Epimetheus /ɛpəˈmiːθiːəs/ is an inner satellite of Saturn. It is named after the mythological Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus.

1. ^ Epimetheus. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
2. ^ NASA (2005 March 28) Epimethean Profile
3. ^ Spitale Jacobson et al. 2006.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Thomas & Helfenstein 2020.
5. ^ ^{a b c} Lainey et al. 2023.
6. ^ Verbiscer French et al. 2007.

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19 December 1776 – Thomas Paine publishes one of a series of pamphlets in The Pennsylvania Journal entitled "The American Crisis".

The American Crisis

Pamphlets on the American Revolution by Thomas Paine (published 1776–83)

The American Crisis, or simply The Crisis,^[1] is a pamphlet series by eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosopher and author Thomas Paine, originally published from 1776 to 1783 during the American Revolution.^[2] Thirteen numbered pamphlets were published between 1776 and 1777, with three additional pamphlets released between 1777 and 1783.^[3] The first of the pamphlets was published in The Pennsylvania Journal on December 19, 1776.^[4] Paine signed the pamphlets with the pseudonym, "Common Sense".

The pamphlets were contemporaneous with early parts of the American Revolution, when colonists needed inspiring works. The American Crisis series was used to "recharge the revolutionary cause."^[5] Paine, like many other politicians and scholars, knew that the colonists were not going to support the American Revolutionary War without proper reason to do so. Written in a language that the common person could understand, they represented Paine's liberal philosophy. Paine also used references to God, saying that a war against Great Britain would be a war with the support of God. Paine's writings bolstered the morale of the American colonists, appealed to the British people's consideration of the war, clarified the issues at stake in the war, and denounced the advocates of a negotiated peace. The first volume famously begins: "These are the times that try men's souls."

1. ^ Davis, Kenneth C. (2003). Don't Know Much About History: Everything You Need to Know About American History but Never Learned (1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-06-008381-6.
2. ^ "The Crisis by Thomas Paine". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved December 19, 2019.
3. ^ Foner, Phillip S, The Complete Writings of Thomas Paine, Vol. 2 (New York: Citadel Press, 1945) p. 48
4. ^ "Thomas Paine publishes American Crisis – Dec 19, 1776 – History..com". History.com. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
5. ^ Dennehy, Robert F.; Morgan, Sandra; Assenza, Pauline (2006). "Thomas Paine: Creating the New Story for a New Nation". Tamara Journal of Critical Organisation Inquiry. 5 (3 & 4). Warsaw: 183–192. ProQuest 204425669.

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20 December 1957 – The initial production version of the Boeing 707 makes its first flight.

Boeing 707

Four-engined single-aisle airliner family by Boeing

The Boeing 707 is an early American long-range narrow-body airliner, the first jetliner developed and produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Developed from the Boeing 367-80 prototype, the initial 707-120 first flew on December 20, 1957. Pan Am began regular 707 service on October 26, 1958. With versions produced until 1979, the 707 is a swept wing quadjet with podded engines. Its larger fuselage cross-section allowed six-abreast economy seating, retained in the later 720, 727, 737, and 757 models.

Although it was not the first commercial jetliner in service, the 707 was the first to be widespread, and is often credited with beginning the Jet Age.^[5] It dominated passenger air-transport in the 1960s, and remained common through the 1970s, on domestic, transcontinental, and transatlantic flights, as well as cargo and military applications. It established Boeing as a dominant airliner manufacturer with its 7x7 series. The initial, 145-foot-long (44 m) 707-120 was powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines. The shortened, long-range 707-138 and the more powerful 707-220 entered service in 1959. The longer-range, heavier 707-300/400 series has larger wings and is stretched slightly by 8 feet (2.4 m). Powered by Pratt & Whitney JT4A turbojets, the 707-320 entered service in 1959, and the 707-420 with Rolls-Royce Conway turbofans in 1960.

The 720, a lighter short-range variant, was also introduced in 1960. Powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3D turbofans, the 707-120B debuted in 1961 and the 707-320B in 1962. The 707-120B typically flew 137 passengers in two classes over 3,600 nautical miles [nmi] (6,700 km; 4,100 mi), and could accommodate 174 in one class. With 141 passengers in two classes, the 707-320/420 could fly 3,750 nmi (6,940 km; 4,320 mi) and the 707-320B up to 5,000 nmi (9,300 km; 5,800 mi). The 707-320C convertible passenger-freighter model entered service in 1963, and passenger 707s have been converted to freighter configurations. Military derivatives include the E-3 Sentry airborne reconnaissance aircraft and the C-137 Stratoliner VIP transport. In total, 865 Boeing 707s were produced and delivered, not including 154 Boeing 720s.

1. ^ "Iranian airline SAHA halts operation due to outdated fleet". payvand.com. Archived from the original on March 14, 2021. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
2. ^ Waldron, Greg (January 14, 2019). "Boeing 707 crashes near Tehran". FlightGlobal. Retrieved January 15, 2019.
3. ^ "707 Model Summary". Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved December 10, 2010.
4. ^ "Boeing 707 Jet Transport." aviation-history.com. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
5. ^ Wilson, Stewart (1999). Airliners of the World. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-875671-44-1. The Boeing 707, the airliner which introduced jet travel on a large scale and p. 48. Quote: "The USA's first jetliner, the 707 was at the forefront of jet travel revolution..."

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21 December 1919 – American anarchist Emma Goldman is deported to Russia.

Emma Goldman

Russian-born anarchist, writer and orator (1869–1940)

Emma Goldman (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was a Russian-born anarchist revolutionary, political activist, and writer. She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the 20th century.

Born in Kaunas, Lithuania (then within the Russian Empire), to a Lithuanian Jewish family, Goldman immigrated to the United States in 1885.^[1] Attracted to anarchism after the Haymarket affair in Chicago, Goldman became a writer and a renowned lecturer on anarchist philosophy, women's rights, and social issues, attracting crowds of thousands.^[1] She and anarchist writer Alexander Berkman, her lover and lifelong friend, planned to assassinate industrialist and financier Henry Clay Frick as an act of propaganda of the deed. Frick survived the attempt on his life in 1892, and Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison. Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years that followed, for "inciting to riot" and illegally distributing information about birth control. In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal Mother Earth.

In 1917, Goldman and Berkman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiring to "induce persons not to register" for the newly instated draft. After their release from prison, they were arrested—along with 248 others—in the so-called Palmer Raids during the First Red Scare and deported to Russia in December 1919. Initially supportive of that country's October Revolution that brought the Bolsheviks to power, Goldman changed her opinion in the wake of the Kronstadt rebellion; she denounced the Soviet Union for its violent repression of independent voices. She left the Soviet Union and in 1923 published a book about her experiences, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life. It was published in two volumes, in 1931 and 1935. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, Goldman traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. She died in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 1940, aged 70.

During her life, Goldman was lionized as a freethinking "rebel woman" by admirers, and denounced by detractors as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution.^[2] Her writing and lectures spanned a wide variety of issues, including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, free love, and homosexuality. Although she distanced herself from first-wave feminism and its efforts toward women's suffrage, she developed new ways of incorporating gender politics into anarchism. After decades of obscurity, Goldman gained iconic status in the 1970s by a revival of interest in her life, when feminist and anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest.

1. ^ ^{a b} University of Illinois at Chicago: Biography of Emma Goldman. Archived September 11, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. UIC Library Emma Goldman Collection. Retrieved on December 13, 2008.
2. ^ Streitmatter, Rodger (2001). Voices of Revolution: The Dissident Press in America. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 122–134. ISBN 0-231-12249-7.

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22 December 1894 – The Dreyfus affair begins in France, when Alfred Dreyfus is wrongly convicted of treason.

Dreyfus affair

1894–1906 political scandal in France

For the film series, see The Dreyfus Affair (film series).

The Dreyfus affair (French: affaire Dreyfus, pronounced [afɛːʁ dʁɛfys]) was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The scandal began in December 1894 when Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a 35-year-old Alsatian French artillery officer of Jewish descent, was wrongfully convicted of treason for communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. He was sentenced to life imprisonment and sent overseas to the penal colony on Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent the following five years imprisoned in very harsh conditions.

In 1896, evidence came to light—primarily through the investigations of Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart, head of counter-espionage—that identified the real culprit as a French Army major named Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy. High-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, and a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy after a trial lasting only two days. The Army laid additional charges against Dreyfus, based on forged documents. Subsequently, writer Émile Zola's open letter "J'Accuse...!" in the newspaper L'Aurore stoked a growing movement of political support for Dreyfus, putting pressure on the government to reopen the case.

In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus, the "Dreyfusards" such as Sarah Bernhardt, Anatole France, Charles Péguy, Henri Poincaré, Georges Méliès, and Georges Clemenceau; and those who condemned him, the "anti-Dreyfusards" such as Édouard Drumont, the director and publisher of the antisemitic newspaper La Libre Parole. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was pardoned and released. In 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated. After being reinstated as a major in the French Army, he served during the whole of World War I, ending his service with the rank of lieutenant colonel. He died in 1935.

The Dreyfus affair came to symbolise modern injustice in the Francophone world;^[1] it remains one of the most notable examples of a miscarriage of justice and of antisemitism. The affair divided France into pro-republican, anticlerical Dreyfusards and pro-army, mostly Catholic anti-Dreyfusards, embittering French politics and encouraging radicalisation.^[2] The press played a crucial role in exposing information and in shaping and expressing public opinion on both sides of the conflict.

1. ^ Guy Canivet, first President of the Supreme Court, Justice from the Dreyfus Affair, p. 15.
2. ^ Daughton, James Patrick (2006). An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-19-530530-2. OCLC 644094069.

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23 December 1815 – The novel Emma by Jane Austen is first published.

Emma (novel)

1816 novel by Jane Austen

For the novel by F. W. Kenyon, see F. W. Kenyon § Published works.

Emma is a novel written by English author Jane Austen. It is set in the fictional Surrey village of Highbury and the surrounding estates of Hartfield, Randalls, and Donwell Abbey, and involves the relationships among people from a small number of families.^[2] The novel was first published in December 1815, although the title page is dated 1816. As in her other novels, Austen explores the concerns and difficulties of genteel women living in Georgian–Regency England. Emma is a comedy of manners.

Before she began the novel, Austen wrote, "I am going to take a heroine whom no one but myself will much like."^[3] In the first sentence, she introduces the title character by stating "Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and a happy disposition, seemed to unite some of the best blessings of existence; and had lived nearly twenty-one years in the world with very little to distress or vex her."^[4] Emma is spoiled, headstrong, and self-satisfied; she greatly overestimates her own matchmaking abilities; she is blind to the dangers of meddling in other people's lives; and her imagination and perceptions often lead her astray.

Emma, written after Austen's move to Chawton, was her last novel to be published during her lifetime.^[5] The last complete novel Austen wrote, Persuasion, was published posthumously.

Emma has been adapted for a number of films, television programmes, and stage plays.

1. ^ "Books Published This Day [NB: advertisement states Emma is published "tomorrow"]". The Morning Chronicle. 22 December 1815. p. 1.
2. ^ Austen-Leigh, William and Richard Arthur (1965). Jane Austen: Her Life and Letters. New York: Russell and Russell. p. 237.
3. ^ Austen-Leigh, James Edward (1882). A Memoir of Jane Austen. London: Richard Bentley & Sons. p. 157.
4. ^ Austen, Jane (2012). Justice, George (ed.). Emma (4th Norton Critical ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-92764-1.
5. ^ Burrows, John Frederick Burrows (1968). Jane Austen's Emma. Australia: Sydney University Press. p. 7.

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24 December 1868 – The Greek Presidential Guard is established as the royal escort by King George I.

Presidential Guard (Greece)

Ceremonial guards

Military unit

The Presidential Guard (Greek: Προεδρική Φρουρά, romanized: Proedrikí Frourá) is a ceremonial infantry unit that guards the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and the Presidential Mansion in Athens, Greece. The unit is distinguished as the last unit of Evzones in the Hellenic Army, and is closely associated with the traditional Evzone's uniform, which evolved from the clothes worn by the klephts in the Greek War of Independence. The most visible item of this uniform is the fustanella, a kilt-like garment. In 1868–1914 and 1937–1973 (with interruptions), the guard also included a cavalry company.

1. ^ Note: Greece officially adopted the Gregorian calendar on 16 February 1923 (which became 1 March). All dates prior to that, unless specifically denoted, are Old Style.

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25 December 1996 – The body of American child beauty queen JonBenét Ramsey was found in her family's Boulder, Colorado, home. Her murder remains unsolved

Killing of JonBenét Ramsey

1996 unsolved murder in Boulder, Colorado, US

"JonBenét" redirects here. For the American noise rock band from Houston, Texas, see The Jonbenét.

On December 25, 1996, six‑year‑old JonBenét Patricia Ramsey was killed in her family's home at 755 15th Street in Boulder, Colorado.^[a] She was reported missing early on December 26, and her body was found about seven hours later in the basement of the house. Her skull had been fractured, and a garrote was tied around her neck. The autopsy determined that the cause of death was asphyxia by strangulation associated with craniocerebral trauma, and the case was ruled a homicide.

The Boulder Police Department initially focused on the Ramsey family, particularly a handwritten ransom note found in the house, which investigators believed had been written by JonBenet's mother, Patsy Ramsey. Police theorized that the note and the condition of JonBenet's body had been staged by Patsy and her husband, John Bennett Ramsey, to conceal responsibility for the killing. In 1999, both the police and the district attorney stated that JonBenet's nine‑year‑old brother, Burke, was not a suspect. That same year, a grand jury recommended charges against the Ramseys for placing the child in a threatening situation and for allegedly hindering the investigation of an unidentified person who had committed murder and child abuse resulting in death. The district attorney declined to pursue an indictment, citing insufficient evidence.

In 2002, a new district attorney assumed control of the case and advanced the theory that an intruder had entered the home and committed the killing. In 2003, trace DNA recovered from JonBenet's clothing was found to belong to an unidentified male, and the Ramseys were excluded as contributors. In 2008, the district attorney sent the family a letter stating that they were completely cleared by the DNA results. In 2009, the Boulder Police Department resumed control of the investigation and continues to treat the case as an open homicide.

The killing drew extensive national and international media attention, fueled by JonBenet's participation in child beauty pageants, the family's wealth, and the unusual evidence associated with the case. Media coverage scrutinized the police response, advanced competing theories, and prompted multiple defamation suits by Ramsey family members and associates. The case remains unsolved, and the Boulder Police Department provides periodic public updates.

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference AutopsyReport was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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26 December 1898 – Marie and Pierre Curie announce the isolation of radium.

Marie Curie

Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, see Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish: [ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska kʲiˈri] ^ⓘ; née Skłodowska; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934), better known as Marie Curie (/ˈkjʊəri/ KURE-ee;^[1] French: [maʁi kyʁi] ^ⓘ), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity.

She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win a Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner of her first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple to win the Nobel Prize and launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in 1906, the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. In 1895, she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In 1906, Pierre Curie died in a Paris street accident. Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes.

Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms by the use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute in Paris in 1920, and the Curie Institute in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals.

While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames,^[5][6] never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her native country.^[b]

Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anaemia likely from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I.^[9] In addition to her Nobel Prizes, she received numerous other honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie during the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous biographies.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Julie Des Jardins2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "The Discovery of Radioactivity". Berkeley Lab. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015. The term radioactivity was actually coined by Marie Curie ...
4. ^ "Marie Curie and the radioactivity, The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics". nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 30 July 2018. Marie called this radiation radioactivity—'radio' means radiation.
5. ^ See her signature, "M. Skłodowska Curie", in the infobox.
6. ^ Her 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was granted to "Marie Sklodowska Curie" File:Marie Skłodowska-Curie's Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911.jpg.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Goldsmith2005a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kabzińska1998 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ "The Genius of Marie Curie: The Woman Who Lit Up the World" on YouTube (a 2013 BBC documentary)
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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27 December 1845 – Ether anesthetic is used for childbirth for the first time by Dr. Crawford Long in Jefferson, Georgia.

Diethyl ether

Organic chemical compound

"^O^" redirects here. For the emoticon, see List of emoticons.

Chemical compound

Diethyl ether, or simply ether (abbreviated as eth.^[8] or Et₂O)^[a][8] is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CH₃CH₂)₂O, belonging to the ether class. It is a colourless, highly volatile, sweet-smelling (termed "ethereal odour"), extremely flammable liquid. It is a common solvent and was formerly used as a general anesthetic.^[9]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0277". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
2. ^ Merck Index, 10th ed., Martha Windholz, editor, Merck & Co., Inc, Rahway, NJ, 1983, p. 551
3. ^ "Diethyl ether_msds".
4. ^ "Diethyl ether". ChemSpider. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
5. ^ Carl L. Yaws, Chemical Properties Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999, p. 567
6. ^ ^{a b} "Ethyl ether". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Ethyl Ether MSDS". J.T. Baker. Archived from the original on 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
8. ^ ^{a b} Logan CM, Rice MK (1987). Logan's Medical and Scientific Abbreviations (Hardbound book). J. B. Lippincott. p. 182. ISBN 0-397-54589-4.
9. ^ Sakuth, Michael; Mensing, Thomas; Schuler, Joachim; Heitmann, Wilhelm; Strehlke, Günther; Mayer, Dieter (2010). "Ethers, Aliphatic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_023.pub2. ISBN 978-3-527-30385-4.

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28 December 1879 – Tay Bridge disaster: The central part of the Tay Rail Bridge in Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom collapses as a train passes over it, killing 75.

Tay Bridge disaster

Bridge collapse and train wreck

For William McGonagall's 1880 poem on this subject, see The Tay Bridge Disaster.

The Tay Bridge disaster occurred during a violent European windstorm on Sunday 28 December 1879, when the first Tay Rail Bridge collapsed as a North British Railway (NBR) passenger train on the Edinburgh to Aberdeen Line travelling from Burntisland to Dundee passed over it, killing all aboard. The bridge, designed by Sir Thomas Bouch, used lattice girders supported by iron piers, with cast iron columns and wrought iron cross-bracing. The piers were narrower and their cross-bracing was less extensive and robust than on previous similar designs by Bouch.

Bouch had sought expert advice on wind loading when designing a proposed rail bridge over the Firth of Forth; as a result of that advice he had made no explicit allowance for wind loading in the design of the Tay Bridge. There were other flaws in detailed design, in maintenance, and in quality control of castings, all of which were, at least in part, Bouch's responsibility.

Bouch died less than a year after the disaster, his reputation ruined. Future British bridge designs had to allow for wind loadings of up to 56 pounds per square foot (2.7 kilopascals). Bouch's design for the Forth Bridge was not used.

As of 2024, it remains the fifth-deadliest railway accident in the history of the United Kingdom, as well as the second deadliest rail accident in Scottish history, being surpassed by the UK's deadliest: the Quintinshill rail disaster.

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29 December 1845 – The United States annexes the Republic of Texas and admits it as the 28th state

Texas annexation

1845 admission of Texas to the US

The Republic of Texas was the only state to enter by treaty into the United States and admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845.

The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2, 1836. It applied for annexation to the United States the same year, but was rejected by the United States secretary of state, John Forsyth, under President Andrew Jackson. At that time, the majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States. The leadership of both major U.S. political parties (the Democrats and the Whigs) opposed the introduction of Texas – a vast slave-holding region – into the volatile political climate of the pro- and anti-slavery sectional controversies in Congress. Moreover, they wished to avoid a war with Mexico, whose government had outlawed slavery and refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province. With Texas's economic fortunes declining by the early 1840s, the president of the Texas Republic, Sam Houston, arranged talks with Mexico to explore the possibility of securing official recognition of independence, with the United Kingdom mediating.

In 1843, U.S. president John Tyler, then unaligned with any political party, decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of support for another four years in office. His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for the emancipation of slaves in Texas, which would undermine slavery in the United States. Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. When the documents were submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification, the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844. Pro-Texas-annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party's convention in May 1844. In alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues, they secured the nomination of James K. Polk, who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest destiny platform.

In June 1844, the Senate, with its Whig majority, soundly rejected the Tyler–Texas treaty. Later that year, the pro-annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti-annexation Whig Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election. In December 1844, lame-duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house. The Democratic-dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro-slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty. The Senate narrowly passed a compromise version of the House bill, designed to provide President-elect Polk the options of immediate annexation of Texas or new talks to revise the annexation terms of the House-amended bill.

On March 1, 1845, President Tyler signed the annexation bill, and on March 3 (his last day in office), he forwarded the House version to Texas, offering immediate annexation. When Polk took office the next day, he encouraged Texas to accept Tyler's offer. Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans. The bill was signed by President Polk on December 29, 1845, accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union. Texas formally joined the union on February 19, 1846, prompting the Mexican–American War in April of that year.

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30 December 1813 – War of 1812: British soldiers burn Buffalo, New York.

War of 1812

1812–1815 conflict in North America

This article is about the conflict in North America from 1812 to 1815. For the Franco-Russian conflict, see French invasion of Russia. For other uses of this term, see War of 1812 (disambiguation).

The War of 1812 was fought by the United States and its allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in North America. It began when the United States declared war on Britain on 18 June 1812. Although peace terms were agreed upon in the December 1814 Treaty of Ghent, the war did not officially end until the peace treaty was ratified by the United States Congress on 17 February 1815.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Anglo-American tensions stemmed from long-standing differences over territorial expansion in North America and British support for Tecumseh's confederacy, which resisted U.S. colonial settlement in the Old Northwest. In 1807, these tensions escalated after the Royal Navy began enforcing tighter restrictions on American trade with France and impressed sailors who were originally British subjects, even those who had acquired American citizenship.^[17] Opinion in the U.S. was split on how to respond, and although majorities in both the House and Senate voted for war in June 1812, they were divided along strict party lines, with the Democratic-Republican Party in favour and the Federalist Party against.^[d][18] News of British concessions made in an attempt to avoid war did not reach the U.S. until late July, by which time the conflict was already underway.

At sea, the Royal Navy imposed an effective blockade on U.S. maritime trade, while between 1812 and 1814 British regulars and colonial militia defeated a series of American invasions in Upper Canada.^[19] The April 1814 abdication of Napoleon allowed the British to send additional forces to North America and reinforce the Royal Navy blockade, crippling the American economy.^[20] In August 1814, negotiations began in Ghent, with both sides wanting peace; the British economy had been severely impacted by the trade embargo, while the Federalists convened the Hartford Convention in December to formalize their opposition to the war.

In August 1814, British troops captured Washington, before American victories at Baltimore and Plattsburgh in September ended fighting in the north. In the Southeastern United States, American forces and Indian allies defeated an anti-American faction of the Muscogee. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in December 1814, though it would be February before word reached the United States and the treaty was fully ratified. In the interim, American troops led by Andrew Jackson repulsed a major British attack on New Orleans.^[21]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b c} Clodfelter 2017, p. 245.
2. ^ Allen 1996, p. 121; Clodfelter 2017, p. 245.
3. ^ Tucker et al. 2012, p. 570.
4. ^ ^{a b} Clodfelter 2017, p. 244.
5. ^ ^{a b} Stagg 2012, p. 156.
6. ^ Hickey 2006, p. 297; Stagg 2012, p. 156.
7. ^ Leland 2010, p. 2.
8. ^ Tucker et al. 2012, p. 311; Hickey 2012n.
9. ^ Weiss 2013.
10. ^ Paul Silverstone, "The Sailing Navy, 1775-1854", Taylor & Francis: November 2006, p. 89-92. Listed fifth rates lost consist of the Guerrier (captured and burnt), Macedonian (captured), Southampton (wrecked), Java (captured and burnt), Confiance (captured), and Statira (wrecked).
11. ^ Silverstone, p. 89-91.
12. ^ Owsley 2000, p. 118.
13. ^ Order of the Senate of the United States 1828, pp. 619–620.
14. ^ Carr 1979, p. 276.
15. ^ "War of 1812". Encyclopedia Britannica (Online ed.). Retrieved 12 September 2025.
16. ^ "The War of 1812". National Army Museum. Retrieved 12 September 2025.
17. ^ Hickey 1989, p. 44.
18. ^ Hickey 1989, pp. 32, 42–43.
19. ^ Greenspan 2018.
20. ^ Benn 2002, pp. 56–57.
21. ^ "The Senate Approves for Ratification the Treaty of Ghent". U.S. Senate. Retrieved 3 January 2024.

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30 December 1813 – War of 1812: British soldiers burn Buffalo, New York.

War of 1812

1812–1815 conflict in North America

This article is about the conflict in North America from 1812 to 1815. For the Franco-Russian conflict, see French invasion of Russia. For other uses of this term, see War of 1812 (disambiguation).

The War of 1812 was fought by the United States and its allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in North America. It began when the United States declared war on Britain on 18 June 1812. Although peace terms were agreed upon in the December 1814 Treaty of Ghent, the war did not officially end until the peace treaty was ratified by the United States Congress on 17 February 1815.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Anglo-American tensions stemmed from long-standing differences over territorial expansion in North America and British support for Tecumseh's confederacy, which resisted U.S. colonial settlement in the Old Northwest. In 1807, these tensions escalated after the Royal Navy began enforcing tighter restrictions on American trade with France and impressed sailors who were originally British subjects, even those who had acquired American citizenship.^[17] Opinion in the U.S. was split on how to respond, and although majorities in both the House and Senate voted for war in June 1812, they were divided along strict party lines, with the Democratic-Republican Party in favour and the Federalist Party against.^[d][18] News of British concessions made in an attempt to avoid war did not reach the U.S. until late July, by which time the conflict was already underway.

At sea, the Royal Navy imposed an effective blockade on U.S. maritime trade, while between 1812 and 1814 British regulars and colonial militia defeated a series of American invasions in Upper Canada.^[19] The April 1814 abdication of Napoleon allowed the British to send additional forces to North America and reinforce the Royal Navy blockade, crippling the American economy.^[20] In August 1814, negotiations began in Ghent, with both sides wanting peace; the British economy had been severely impacted by the trade embargo, while the Federalists convened the Hartford Convention in December to formalize their opposition to the war.

In August 1814, British troops captured Washington, before American victories at Baltimore and Plattsburgh in September ended fighting in the north. In the Southeastern United States, American forces and Indian allies defeated an anti-American faction of the Muscogee. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in December 1814, though it would be February before word reached the United States and the treaty was fully ratified. In the interim, American troops led by Andrew Jackson repulsed a major British attack on New Orleans.^[21]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b c} Clodfelter 2017, p. 245.
2. ^ Allen 1996, p. 121; Clodfelter 2017, p. 245.
3. ^ Tucker et al. 2012, p. 570.
4. ^ ^{a b} Clodfelter 2017, p. 244.
5. ^ ^{a b} Stagg 2012, p. 156.
6. ^ Hickey 2006, p. 297; Stagg 2012, p. 156.
7. ^ Leland 2010, p. 2.
8. ^ Tucker et al. 2012, p. 311; Hickey 2012n.
9. ^ Weiss 2013.
10. ^ Paul Silverstone, "The Sailing Navy, 1775-1854", Taylor & Francis: November 2006, p. 89-92. Listed fifth rates lost consist of the Guerrier (captured and burnt), Macedonian (captured), Southampton (wrecked), Java (captured and burnt), Confiance (captured), and Statira (wrecked).
11. ^ Silverstone, p. 89-91.
12. ^ Owsley 2000, p. 118.
13. ^ Order of the Senate of the United States 1828, pp. 619–620.
14. ^ Carr 1979, p. 276.
15. ^ "War of 1812". Encyclopedia Britannica (Online ed.). Retrieved 12 September 2025.
16. ^ "The War of 1812". National Army Museum. Retrieved 12 September 2025.
17. ^ Hickey 1989, p. 44.
18. ^ Hickey 1989, pp. 32, 42–43.
19. ^ Greenspan 2018.
20. ^ Benn 2002, pp. 56–57.
21. ^ "The Senate Approves for Ratification the Treaty of Ghent". U.S. Senate. Retrieved 3 January 2024.

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31 December 1600 – The British East India Company is chartered.

East India Company

British joint-stock company (1600–1858)

This article is about the British company. For the Dutch company, see Dutch East India Company. For other uses, see East India Company (disambiguation).

"John Company" redirects here. For the board game, see John Company (board game).

The East India Company (EIC)^[a] was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874.^[4] It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (which included the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia), and later with East Asia. The company gained control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent and Hong Kong. At its peak, the company was the largest corporation in the world by various measures and had its own armed forces in the form of the company's three presidency armies, totalling about 260,000 soldiers, twice the size of the British Army at certain times.^[5]

Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies,"^[6][7] the company rose to account for half of the world's trade during the mid-1700s and early 1800s,^[8] particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, sugar, salt, spices, saltpetre, tea, gemstones, and later opium. The company also initiated the beginnings of the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent.^[8][9]

The company eventually came to rule large areas of the Indian subcontinent, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company-ruled areas in the region gradually expanded after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and by 1858 most of modern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh was either ruled by the company or princely states closely tied to the company by treaties. Following the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown assuming direct control of present-day Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Myanmar in the form of the new British Indian Empire.^[10]

The company subsequently experienced recurring problems with its finances, despite frequent government intervention. The company was dissolved in 1874 under the terms of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act enacted one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of the British Empire had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference topic/East was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Carey, W. H. (1882). 1882 – The Good Old Days of Honourable John Company. Simla: Argus Press. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
3. ^ "Company Bahadur". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 December 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
4. ^ "Not many days ago the House of Commons passed". Times. London. 8 April 1873. p. 9.
5. ^ Roos, Dave (23 October 2020). "How the East India Company Became the World's Most Powerful Monopoly". History. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
6. ^ Scott, William. "East India Company, 1817–1827". Archives Hub. Senate House Library Archives, University of London. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
7. ^ Parliament of England (31 December 1600). Charter Granted by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company  – via Wikisource. Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies
8. ^ ^{a b} Farrington, Anthony (2002). Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia 1600–1834. British Library. ISBN 9780712347563. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
9. ^ "Books associated with Trading Places – the East India Company and Asia 1600–1834, an Exhibition". Archived from the original on 30 March 2014.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Conquests was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 January 1806 – The French Republican Calendar is abolished

French Republican calendar

Calendar used in Revolutionary France from 1793 to 1805

The French Republican calendar (French: calendrier républicain français), also commonly called the French Revolutionary calendar (calendrier révolutionnaire français), was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871, meant to replace the Gregorian calendar.^[1] The calendar consisted of twelve 30-day months, each divided into three 10-day cycles similar to weeks, plus five or six intercalary days at the end to fill out the balance of a solar year. It was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and it was part of a larger attempt at dechristianisation and decimalisation in France (which also included decimal time of day, decimalisation of currency, and metrication). It was used in government records in France and other areas under French rule, including Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Malta, and Italy.

1. ^ "The 12 Months of the French Republican Calendar | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 19 May 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.

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2 January 1967 – Ronald Reagan, past movie actor and future President of the United States, is sworn in as Governor of California.

Ronald Reagan

President of the United States from 1981 to 1989

"Reagan" redirects here. For other uses, see Ronald Reagan (disambiguation) and Reagan (disambiguation).

Ronald Wilson Reagan^[a] (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. A member of the Republican Party, he became an important figure in the American conservative movement. The period encompassing his presidency is known as the Reagan era.

Born in Tampico, Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and was hired the next year as a sports broadcaster in Iowa. In 1937, he moved to California where he became a well-known film actor. During his acting career, Reagan was president of the Screen Actors Guild twice from 1947 to 1952 and from 1959 to 1960. In the 1950s, he hosted General Electric Theater and worked as a motivational speaker for General Electric. During the 1964 presidential election, Reagan's "A Time for Choosing" speech launched his rise as a leading conservative figure. After being elected governor of California in 1966, he raised state taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus and implemented crackdowns on university protests. Following his loss to Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican Party presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican Party's nomination and then obtained a landslide victory over President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election.

In his first term as president, Reagan began implementing "Reaganomics", a policy involving economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation. On the world stage, he escalated the arms race, increased military spending, transitioned Cold War policy away from détente, and ordered the 1983 invasion of Grenada. Reagan's first term was also notable for his survival of an assassination attempt, a well-publicized fight with public-sector labor unions, an expansion of the war on drugs, and his slow response to the AIDS epidemic. In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan was elected to a second term upon defeating former vice president Walter Mondale in one of the largest landslide victories in American history. Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the 1986 bombing of Libya, the secret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras, and engaging in negotiations with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, which culminated in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.

Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, a fall in the unemployment rate, and the longest peacetime economic expansion in U.S. history at that time; the national debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his tax cuts and increased military spending outweighing his cuts to domestic discretionary spending. Reagan's foreign policies also contributed to the end of the Cold War. Though he planned an active post-presidency, it was hindered after he was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 1994, and his physical and mental capacities gradually deteriorated, leading to his death in 2004. His tenure constituted a realignment toward conservative policies in the United States, and he is often considered an icon of American conservatism. Historical rankings of U.S. presidents have typically placed Reagan in the middle to upper tier, and his post-presidential approval ratings by the general public are usually high.^[8]

1. ^ Holmes 2020, p. 210.
2. ^ Oliver, Myrna (October 11, 1995). "Robert H. Finch, Lt. Gov. Under Reagan, Dies : Politics: Leader in California GOP was 70. He also served in Nixon's Cabinet and as President's special counselor and campaign manager". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
3. ^ Chang, Cindy (December 25, 2016). "Ed Reinecke, who resigned as California's lieutenant governor after a perjury conviction, dies at 92". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
4. ^ South, Garry (May 21, 2018). "California's lieutenant governors rarely move up to the top job". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
5. ^ The Chairman's Report – 1968: To the Members of the Republican National Committee Jan. 16–17, 1969. Republican National Committee. January 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023.
6. ^ Synergy, Volumes 13–30. Bay Area Reference Center. 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Governor Raymond Shafer of Pennsylvania was elected on December 13 to succeed Governor Ronald Reagan as Chairman of the Republican Governors Association.
7. ^ Brands 2015, p. 261.
8. ^ "Retrospective Approval of Presidents". Gallup, Inc. July 17, 2023. Retrieved August 23, 2023.

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3 January 1833 – Captain James Onslow, in the Clio, reasserts British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands.

Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (1833)

This article is about the re-establishment of British rule on the Falkland Islands in 1833. For other uses, see Falklands Crisis.

Re-establishment of British rule on the Falkland Islands in 1833

In December 1832, the United Kingdom sent two naval vessels to re-assert British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas), after the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (part of which later became Argentina) ignored British diplomatic protests over the appointment of Luis Vernet as governor of the Falkland Islands and a dispute over fishing rights.

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3 January 1833 – Captain James Onslow, in the Clio, reasserts British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands.

Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (1833)

This article is about the re-establishment of British rule on the Falkland Islands in 1833. For other uses, see Falklands Crisis.

Re-establishment of British rule on the Falkland Islands in 1833

In December 1832, the United Kingdom sent two naval vessels to re-assert British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas), after the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (part of which later became Argentina) ignored British diplomatic protests over the appointment of Luis Vernet as governor of the Falkland Islands and a dispute over fishing rights.

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4 January 1884 – The Fabian Society is founded in London, United Kingdom.

Fabian Society

British socialist organisation founded in 1884

For other organisations known by the same name, see § Fabianism outside the United Kingdom.

The Fabian Society (/ˈfeɪbiən/^[1]) is a British socialist organisation whose purpose is to advance the principles of social democracy and democratic socialism via gradualist and reformist effort in democracies, rather than by revolutionary overthrow.^[2][3] It was historically related to some of the furthest left factions of radicalism, a left-wing liberal tradition.^[4][5][6]

As one of the founding organisations of the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, and as an important influence upon the Labour Party which grew from it, the Fabian Society has strongly influenced British politics. Members of the Fabian Society have included political leaders from other countries, such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Lee Kuan Yew,^[7][8] who adopted Fabian principles as part of their own political ideologies. The Fabian Society founded the London School of Economics in 1895.

Today, the society functions primarily as a think tank and is one of twenty socialist societies affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Italy.

1. ^ "Fabian". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins.
2. ^ Thomson, George (1 March 1976). "The Tindemans Report and the European Future" (PDF).
3. ^ Cole, Margaret (1961). The Story of Fabian Socialism. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804700917. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
4. ^ Perdue, Jon B. (2012). The War of All the People: The Nexus of Latin American Radicalism and Middle Eastern Terrorism (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books. p. 97. ISBN 978-1597977043.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference radical2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference radical3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Barr, Michael D. (2000). "Lee Kuan Yew's Fabian Phase". Australian Journal of Politics & History. 46: 110–126. doi:10.1111/1467-8497.00088.
8. ^ "Here's what it would really mean if Britain was like Singapore". 6 February 2017.

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5 January 1900 – Irish nationalist leader John Edward Redmond calls for revolt against British rule

John Redmond

Irish politician (1856–1918)

For the American songwriter, see John Redmond (songwriter).

"John Edward Redmond" redirects here. For the reservoir in Kansas, see John Redmond Reservoir.

John Edward Redmond (1 September 1856 – 6 March 1918) was an Irish nationalist politician, barrister, and MP in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. He was best known as leader of the moderate Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) from 1900 until his death in 1918. He was also the leader of the paramilitary organisation the Irish National Volunteers (INV).

He was born to an old prominent Catholic family in rural Ireland; several relatives were politicians. He took over control of the minority IPP faction loyal to Charles Stewart Parnell when he died in 1891. Redmond was a conciliatory politician who achieved the two main objectives of his political life: party unity and, in September 1914, the passing of the Government of Ireland Act 1914. The Act granted limited self-government to Ireland, within the United Kingdom. However, implementation of Home Rule was suspended on the outbreak of the First World War. Redmond called on the National Volunteers to join Irish regiments of the New British Army and support the British and Allied war effort to restore the "freedom of small nations" on the European continent, thereby to also ensure the implementation of Home Rule after a war that was expected to be of short duration. However, after the Easter Rising of 1916, Irish public opinion shifted in favour of militant republicanism and full Irish independence, so that his party lost its dominance in Irish politics.

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6 January 1540 – King Henry VIII of England marries Anne of Cleves

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509 to 1547

For other uses, see Henry VIII (disambiguation).

Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry was a dominant and forceful monarch. He is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated by the pope.

Born in Greenwich, Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England, expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy. He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial using bills of attainder. He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration.

Henry was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament. He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King James V of Scotland, and the Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise. He founded the Royal Navy, oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542.

Henry's contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king. He has been described as "one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and his reign described as the "most important" in English history.^[5][6] He was an author and composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered, and was frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch.^[7][8] His third marriage to Jane Seymour did finally produce the son and heir he longed for and he was succeeded by Edward VI. Nonetheless, his daughters by his first and second wives, Mary, and then Elizabeth, later acceded to the throne in turn.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Chapter Five: Table of regnal year of English Sovereigns". Sweet & Maxwell's Guide to Law Reports and Statutes (Fourth ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell's Guide. 1962. p. 27.
2. ^ Cheney, C. R.; Jones, Michael, eds. (2000). A Handbook of Dates for Students of British History. Royal Historical Society Guides and Handbooks. Vol. 4 (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-521-77095-8.
3. ^ Edwards, John (2011). Mary I: England's Catholic Queen. Yale University Press: New Haven and London. p. 137.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
4. ^ Porter 2007, p. 268.
5. ^ Guy 2000, p. 41.
6. ^ Starkey, David. "The Six Wives of Henry VIII. About the Series. Behind the Scenes". Thirteen.org. PBS. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
7. ^ Ives 2006, pp. 28–36.
8. ^ Montefiore 2008, p. 129.

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6 January 1540 – King Henry VIII of England marries Anne of Cleves

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509 to 1547

For other uses, see Henry VIII (disambiguation).

Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry was a dominant and forceful monarch. He is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated by the pope.

Born in Greenwich, Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England, expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy. He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial using bills of attainder. He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration.

Henry was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament. He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King James V of Scotland, and the Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise. He founded the Royal Navy, oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542.

Henry's contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king. He has been described as "one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and his reign described as the "most important" in English history.^[5][6] He was an author and composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered, and was frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch.^[7][8] His third marriage to Jane Seymour did finally produce the son and heir he longed for and he was succeeded by Edward VI. Nonetheless, his daughters by his first and second wives, Mary, and then Elizabeth, later acceded to the throne in turn.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Chapter Five: Table of regnal year of English Sovereigns". Sweet & Maxwell's Guide to Law Reports and Statutes (Fourth ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell's Guide. 1962. p. 27.
2. ^ Cheney, C. R.; Jones, Michael, eds. (2000). A Handbook of Dates for Students of British History. Royal Historical Society Guides and Handbooks. Vol. 4 (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-521-77095-8.
3. ^ Edwards, John (2011). Mary I: England's Catholic Queen. Yale University Press: New Haven and London. p. 137.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
4. ^ Porter 2007, p. 268.
5. ^ Guy 2000, p. 41.
6. ^ Starkey, David. "The Six Wives of Henry VIII. About the Series. Behind the Scenes". Thirteen.org. PBS. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
7. ^ Ives 2006, pp. 28–36.
8. ^ Montefiore 2008, p. 129.

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7 January 1904 – The distress signal "CQD" is established only to be replaced two years later by "SOS".

CQD

Morse code distress call in the early 20th century

For other uses, see CQD (disambiguation).

CQD in Morse code

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CQD (transmitted in Morse code as ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄  ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄  ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ) is one of the first distress signals adopted for radio use. On 7 January 1904 the Marconi International Marine Communication Company issued "Circular 57", which specified that, for the company's installations, beginning 1 February 1904 "the call to be given by ships in distress or in any way requiring assistance shall be 'C Q D'".^[1]

1. ^ Turnbull, G.E. (1913). "Distress Signalling". The Year-book of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. pp. 318–322. Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2019.

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8 January 1912 – The African National Congress is founded, under the name South African Native National Congress (SANNC)

African National Congress

Political party in South Africa

"ANC" redirects here. For other uses, see ANC (disambiguation).

For other political parties, see African National Congress (Trinidad and Tobago), African National Congress (Zambia), and African National Congress (Tanganyika).

The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in South Africa. It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the first post-apartheid election resulted in Nelson Mandela being elected as President of South Africa. Cyril Ramaphosa, the incumbent national president, has served as president of the ANC since 18 December 2017.^[12]

Founded on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein as the South African Native National Congress, the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of black South Africans. When the National Party government came to power in 1948, the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised apartheid. To this end, its methods and means of organisation shifted; its adoption of the techniques of mass politics, and the swelling of its membership, culminated in the Defiance Campaign of civil disobedience in 1952–53. The ANC was banned by the South African government between April 1960 – shortly after the Sharpeville massacre – and February 1990. During this period, despite periodic attempts to revive its domestic political underground, the ANC was forced into exile by increasing state repression, which saw many of its leaders imprisoned on Robben Island. Headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia, the exiled ANC dedicated much of its attention to a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the apartheid state, carried out under its military wing, uMkhonto weSizwe, which was founded in 1961 in partnership with the South African Communist Party (SACP). The ANC was condemned as a terrorist organisation by the governments of South Africa, the United States, and the United Kingdom^{[citation needed]}. However, it positioned itself as a key player in the negotiations to end apartheid, which began in earnest after the ban was repealed in 1990. For much of that time, the ANC leadership, along with many of its most active members, operated from abroad. After the Soweto Uprising of 1976, the ANC remained committed to achieving its objectives through armed struggle. These circumstances significantly shaped the ANC during its years in exile.^[12]

In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement, although it is also a registered political party. Partly due to its Tripartite Alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), it had retained a comfortable electoral majority at the national level and in most provinces, and has provided each of South Africa's five presidents since 1994. South Africa is considered a dominant-party state. However, the ANC's electoral majority has declined consistently since 2004, and in the 2021 local elections, its share of the national vote dropped below 50% for the first time ever.^[13] Over the last decade, the party has been embroiled in a number of controversies, particularly relating to widespread allegations of political corruption among its members.

Following the 2024 general election, the ANC lost its majority in parliament for the first time in South Africa's democratic history. However, it still remained the largest party, with just over 40% of the vote.^[14] The party also lost its majority in Kwa-Zulu Natal, Gauteng and Northern Cape. Despite these setbacks, the ANC retained power at the national level through a grand coalition referred to as the Government of National Unity, including parties which together have 72% of the seats in Parliament.^[15]

1. ^ Harper, Paddy (18 December 2022). "Existential crisis-ANC membership drops by more than one third in five years". Mail and Guardian. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
2. ^ "South Africa • Africa Elects".
3. ^ "How Democratic is the African National Congress? | Request PDF". Retrieved 16 February 2024.
4. ^ ^[2][3]
5. ^ Lissoni, Arianna; Soske, JON; Erlank, Natasha; Nieftagodien, Noor; Badsha, Omar, eds. (2012). One Hundred Years of the ANC. doi:10.18772/22012115737. ISBN 978-1-77614-287-3. JSTOR 10.18772/22012115737.
6. ^ Fatton, Robert (2 February 1984). "The African National Congress of South Africa: The Limitations of a Revolutionary Strategy". Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines. 18 (3): 593–608. doi:10.1080/00083968.1984.10804082. JSTOR 484771.
7. ^ ^[5][6]
8. ^ William Mervin Gumede, ed. (15 May 2008). Thabo Mbeki and the Battle for the Soul of the ANC. Zed Books. p. 306. The grand ambition of Mbeki and the ANC managers is to make the party the natural home of all-black and white-who occupy 'middle' South Africa. The basic contention is that there is a cross-racial majority within South African politics that instinctively espouses moderate politics and values. A centrist ANC would be the fulcrum of a shared programme to remake South Africa's economy and society.
9. ^ Andrea Scheibler; David M. Anderson; Nic Cheeseman, eds. (5 July 2017). Routledge Handbook of African Politics. Taylor & Francis. p. 30. Indeed, federation is supported primarily by narrowly based minority parties – the white-dominant National Party and Democratic Alliance (DA), and the Zulu nationalist Inkatha Freedom Party – and remains unpopular with most black supporters of the dominant African National Congress (ANC), who favour a strong, centrist, and consolidated developmental state.
10. ^ "South Africa" (PDF). European Social Survey. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
11. ^ Mapekuka, Vulindlela (November 2007). "The ANC and the Socialist International". Umrabulo. 30. African National Congress. Archived from the original on 24 September 2011.
12. ^ ^{a b} Burke, Jason (18 December 2017). "Cyril Ramaphosa chosen to lead South Africa's ruling ANC party". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
13. ^ Cele, S'thembile (4 November 2021). "ANC Support Falls Below 50% for First Time in South African Vote". Bloomberg. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
14. ^ "In a historic election, South Africa's ANC loses majority for the first time". NPR. 1 June 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
15. ^ Chothia, Farouk; Kupemba, Danai Kesta; Plett-Usher, Barbra (14 June 2024). "ANC and DA agree on South Africa unity government". BBC News. Retrieved 14 June 2024.

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